Policy updates: Vehicles and charging infrastructure

for the stakeholders that are ready to mobilise resources, thereby constraining development costs. Standardisation has major implications for the nature of the hardware used for charging infrastructure and for communication protocols. We focus on these elements in this section.

Hardware

The three main characteristics that differentiate chargers include:

•Level: the power output range of the charger.

•Type: the socket and connector used for charging.

•Mode: the communication protocol between the vehicle and the charger.

Currently, 41 countries have specified a hardware charging standard.5 Table 2.2 builds on the analysis developed for the Global EV Outlook 2018 (IEA, 2018a) to provide an updated overview of the most prevalent charging standards. Four of the countries/regions have updated their specifications in the last year.

•India made significant updates to its charging infrastructure guidelines in 2018. CCS Combo 2 and CHAdeMO have become the mandated plugs for DC fast chargers. The IEC 62196- 2 Type 2 is retained as the main AC fast charging standard, as well as the Bharat standard for AC (IEC 60309) and DC slow charging (Government of India, 2018a). Unlike most other countries, India set specific charging standards for long-range EVs and heavy-duty vehicles (primarily targeting buses), requiring that 100 kW chargers are equipped with both a CCS and a CHAdeMO outlet.

•The United States has released the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J3068 standard that specifically targets mediumand heavy-freight trucks (SAE International, 2018). This standard is similar to the IEC 62196-2 Type 2 and opens the possibility to use three-phase AC power (up to 166 kW) for fast chargers.

•Singapore confirmed IEC 62196-2 Type 2 as its standard for AC charging and CCS Combo2 as standard for DC charging (CharIN, 2019a).

•CHAdeMO officially released its new protocol (CHAdeMO 2.0) that enables high power

charging up to 400 kW (CHAdeMO, 2018a). Besides the higher power capacity, the protocol is also compatible with the CHAdeMO plug-and-charge (PnC)6 functionality, delivering more advanced software to enable improved functionality and inter-operability.

•Tesla is ramping up its efforts regarding charging standards. In March 2019, Tesla released its version 3 (V3) of the supercharger network. V3 enables charging up to 250 kW, which nearly doubles the recharging speed relative to V2, assisted by advanced battery management that allows for a higher state of charge (Tesla, 2019a). The first V3 (beta) charging station opened in the United States with additional openings expected in secondand third-quarter of 2019 in North America, to be followed by new stations in Europe, Asia and Oceania in fourth-quarter 2019. New Model 3 cars will have V3 available, whereas other

Tesla models will be upgraded via a software update. In addition to the current accessibility to CHAdeMO standard via adapters, Tesla is making the combined charging system (CCS) standard accessible in several countries and regions. In Europe, where the CCS Combo 2 is mandatory according to the provisions of the EU Alternative Fuels Infrastructure (AFI) Directive (EC, 2014), the new Tesla Model 3 will make use of CCS Combo 2 for fast charging (Electrek, 2018). Tesla also sells a CCS adapter for the Tesla Model S and Model X for EUR 500 (USD 590 [United States dollars]). This would enable Tesla users to access a much wider network of charging stations (Auto Express, 2018). CCS Combo 2 also will be made available for the Model 3 in Australia and New Zealand, which includes retrofitting existing superchargers (InsideEVs, 2018). Tesla has not made public announcements to add CCS connectors used at existing superchargers in other regions, nor whether a similar strategy to open to CCS will be applied to the US market. The regional plug strategy is in line with the approach to deliver Model 3 cars in China with a GB/T standard (InsideEVs, 2019).

In addition to these key developments and the overview in Table 2.2, various companies have announced high power chargers of more than 400 kW (Tritium, 2019; Phoenix Contact, 2019; BMW Group, 2018; ChargePoint, 2019). This stretches the limits of existing standards to mimic conventional refuelling to serve heavy-duty vehicles. It adds challenges for power sector operators, since it adds significant loads to the electricity network and can increase peak loads, thereby stressing power system flexibility (see Chapter 5, Implications of electric mobility for power systems). However, some measures are being taken to limit the impact of fast chargers

during peak hours. For example, the City of Amsterdam aims to constrain the maximum capacity of chargers during peak hours7 and Tesla plans to offset part of the potential power system constraints by adding large solar arrays to its supercharger network and upcoming mega chargers (Box 2.1) (TopSpeed, 2018; ElaadNL, 2018).

From a vehicle perspective, only a limited number of cars have batteries that allow for ultra-fast or high power charging, potentially leading to different battery costs (NREL, 2017). So far, only the Porsche Taycan has a battery that can handle 800 Volts or 240 kW (at 300 amperes) (Porsche, 2018).

Box 2.1. Dawn of the mega charger

Charging standards are spreading geographically and across modes. In 2018, expanded charging standards (e.g. pantograph charging) for power levels up to 600 kW in urban electric buses were supported by CHAdeMO, CCS and OppCharge (IEA, 2018a). Given the interest of several vehicle manufacturers to develop electric intercity buses, mediumand heavy-freight trucks (possibly even small ships and airplanes), which all require large batteries and have limited windows of time available for charging purposes, the interest in so-called mega chargers that could charge at 1 megawatt (MW) or above is destined to swell.

Tesla was the first company that used the label mega charger for the charging infrastructure envisioned for its Semi heavy-freight truck (Tesla, 2017). A specific power output was not indicated, but based on the claims on the battery of the truck and recharging speed, the recharging speed of a mega charger could be as high as 1.6 MW. However, as the Tesla Semi prototype has eight independent pins (four positive and four negative), the mega charger could be multiple plugs with lower power rating with a combined power rate above 1 MW (Teslarati, 2017).

In 2018, ChargePoint, a US-based charger manufacturer and operator, was the first company to present a concept for a connector intended for electric aircraft and heavy trucks that would use four 500 ampere interfaces with a maximum of 1 000 Volts, which would lead to a maximum combined power of 2 MW (ChargePoint, 2018).

In 2019, CharIN was the first organisation to release requirements for High Power Charging for Commercial Vehicles and to request inputs from the industry to submit proposals to assess the feasibility of mega chargers (CharIN, 2019b). The chargers would have a similar voltage as high power chargers announced to date (up to 400 kW) and would gain extra power by ramping up the current to max 3 000 ampere.

A MoU between CHAdeMO and the China Electric Council aims to develop a standard beyond current high power charging limits (400 kW), but the latest specifications reveal that the common fast charging standard is set at a maximum of 900 kW (just under mega level) (IEEE, 2018).