2. Get ready to speak on the following topics:

1. The first settlers on the British Isles. Stonehenge. The Celts on the British Isles; traces of Celtic culture in present-day Britain.

2. The Roman conquest of Britain. The impact of the conquest on the development of culture on the British Isles; traces of Roman culture in present-day Britain.

3. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. The origin of the English language. The impact of Christianity on the Anglo-Saxon culture. Anglo-Saxon literature (Caedmon, the Venerable Bede, Beowulf).

4. The Scandinavian invasion of Britain, its impact on the political and cultural life of the country (Danelaw, King Canute). The role of King Alfred the Great in the history of Britain.

5. Distinctive features of the language in the Old English period. Celtic, Latin and Scandinavian borrowings in the English language. The history of English place-names.

6. The Norman conquest of Britain, its impact on the political and cultural life of the country. The Domesday Book. The first universities. Magna Carta and the beginning of Parliament. Thomas Becket. English literature of the 11^th-13^th centuries (Robin Hood, King Arthur). Changes in the language.

7. The economic development of England in the 14^th-15^th centuries. The Peasants’ Revolt of 1381; the abolition of slavery. The Hundred Years War. The Wars of the Roses. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales. Changes in the language in the Middle English period. William Caxton.

III. Topics for presentations:

• The invasions of early Britain and their impact on the political, economic and cultural development of the country.

• The Norman Conquest and its impact on various spheres of life in England.

• England’s economic growth in the 14^th-15^th centuries.

SECTION 2

The English Renaissance

1. General characteristic of the period

The 16^th century, also known as the Tudor age, was a highly remarkable period in English history. The Tudors restored peace and order after a long period of feudal wars, formalized Protestantism, and presided over increased trade, exploration and naval strength that set England on the path to world power. Тhe Tudor epoch was a time of resolute changes in the English state system. The first Tudor king Henry VII established absolute monarchy; his son Henry VIII broke away from Rome bringing in Reformation; and his granddaughter Elizabeth I brought glory to the country defeating Spain and promoting the spread of Renaissance in England. During the reign of the Tudor dynasty England turned gradually into a modern national state – centralized, sovereign, based on uniform system of the general law with the Church subordinated to the state.

It was the time of great geographical discoveries and the beginning of colonization of America.

2. The Great Discoveries

The old trade routs between Europe and Asia were not only long but implied transshipment of goods: all goods were passed on from merchant to merchant along the rout, each taking a substantial profit. The sea voyages were purely coastal as the ships were primitive basin-shaped vessels. The high cost of transportation of goods made it unprofitable to carry bulky merchandise. The imported goods were mainly objects of luxury. And yet, trade with the East, which was in the hands of small groups of merchants or towns, like the Hanseatic towns, flourished. Each route was a jealously guarded monopoly and the so-called ‘owners’ guarded them even by armed force.

For Europe, the 15^th century was the time when nation states were growing up in place of the old Duchies. The new states had strong centralized governments which had no share in the old routs and were anxious to develop new routs of their own and destroy the monopoly of Venice, Genoa and the Hanseatic League.

The 15^th century witnessed great changes in the technique of ship-building and navigation. Spain and Portugal developed the caravel for coastal trade in the Atlantic. The compass, known since the 12^th century, was perfected. In 1492 Columbus reached the West Indies. Six years later, Vasco da Gama made a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. When he returned to Lisbon from India with a cargo which repaid sixtyfold the cost of his voyage, the effect was shattering. Overseas voyages followed in a quick succession. These events were the climax of a long series of changes transforming the relations between Europe and the East and the beginning of European contacts with the American continent.

The American continent proved to be rich in gold and silver beyond any dreams. As it was impossible to keep the precious metals within Spain and Portugal, they spread over Europe stimulating the commerce of Spain’s rivals: France, Holland and England. England was not strong enough to challenge Spain or Portugal in the Spanish Main and was forced to look for ways of her own. Then England turned her attention to the North-East, and in 1553 a group of London merchants sent an expedition round the north of Norway. Some of the men perished in the ice, but the others reached the city of Archangel and established regular trade relations with Muscovy. The Muscovy Company was founded in 1649; it got a charter allowing it to monopolise trade between England and Russia.