Semantic changes:

Metaphor is a semantic process which amply comparison between two unlike entities. It is based on the similarity of features of two object. Sometimes it is called hidden comparison.

F.e.: This man is a pig.

Metaphor has a structure. It consists of tenor and vehicle. “This man” is a tenor (the object), “pig” is a vehicle (the image introduced). Sometimes we see only vehicle.

Conceptual domains. “This man” belongs to a conceptual domain “human” and “a pig” belongs to a conceptual domain “animal”. And these domains overlapped.

Kinds of metaphors:

1) metaphors based on the similarity of shape. F.e.: the head of cabbage – кочан капусты.

2) metaphors based on the similarity of function. F.e.: umbrellas of trees.

3) metaphors based on the similarity of position. F.e.: the foot of the mountain.

etc.

In most cases we deal with several types of similarity. F.e.: the leg of the table.

There are metaphors in a language that are called dead metaphors. We use them too often. They no longer call up the image of the object in our mind. F.e.: “the back of the chair”

Cognitive metaphor is a mechanism which is part of our conceptualization of the world. F.e.: its typical for us to think of feelings as liquids. We conceptualize life as a road or a way.

Metonymy is the semantic process the essence of which is the substitution of the name of one object by the other which occures in near proximity with the first one. F.e.: He drinks two cups every morning.

Types of metonymy:

1) container for contained. F.e.: cups, plates.

2) producer for produced. F.e.: Ford (car).

3) a person for his or her name. F.e: I am not in the telephone book.

4) synecdoche – a part is used instead of a whole or v.v. F.e.: New faces at the meeting.

5) bahuvrihi (санскрит) is the type of metonymy when a person or an object are named after a striking feature which they posses. The formula of bahuvrihi is adjective +noun. F.e.: синяя борода, красная шапочка, Белоснежка, sweet heart, sweet tooth, lazy bones.

Other semantic changes:

Broadening of meaning is extension of semantic capacity of a word, the range of its applicability. F.e.: bureau. The first meaning was :thick green cloth for covering tables”. Then “a table covered with this cloth”. Then “any writing table with or without this cloth”. Then “an office with writing tables”. Then “any office”.

Narrowing of meaning is the opposite process. F.e.: “girl”. In OE – “a child of either sex”. Now – “a female child” or “a young woman”.

Elevation of meaning is the improvement of the connotational component, the meaning becomes better. F.e.: “minister”, “lady”, “lord”.

Degradation of meaning – the meaning becomes worse. F.e.: “вонь”.

Systemic relations in the language.

There are four types:

1) synonymy

2) homonymy

3) semantic contrastives

4) polysemy

Synonymy.

Synonyms are words different in the outer form (aspect) but identical or similar in the inner aspect. There are other definition for this term: synonyms are words which can replace each other in any or some context.

Classification:

1) absolute synonyms – have the same meaning belong to the same styling. F.e.: moan = groan; homeland = motherland.

2) contextual synonyms – they are similar in meaning but in particular context. F.e.: to buy – to get (I’ll go to the shop and get some bread).

3) phraseological synonyms – they are identical in meaning but different conticability in the other word. F.e.: to be late for a lecture – to miss a bus.

4) dialectical synonyms – they have identical meaning but can be found different variant of the language. F.e.: sweet - candy (AmE and BrE); autumn – fall; lift - elevator.

5) stylistic synonyms – they belong to different styles. F.e.: examination – exam; late – dead.

6) ideogrphic synonyms – they are different in shares of meaning. They bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content. F.e.: look – appearance – complexion – countenance; to happen – to occur – to befall – to chance.

7) functional synonyms – they have identical meaning but different formation. F.e.: to look – to have a look; to work – to take a work.

8) slang synonyms. F.e.: head – attic – upper store.

Sources of synonymy:

1) dialects and different variants of the language. F.e.: lift – elevator.

2) borrowing. F.e. to begin – to commence; to sweat – to perspire.

3) word-forming processes

3.1 abbreviation

3.2 suffixation. F.e.: effectiveness – effectivity.

3.3 conversion. F.e.: laugh – laughter; commandment – command.

4) hyper-hyponymic relations. F.e.: father – parent; flower – rose.

5) semantic shifts due to various taboos. F.e.: victim – survivor; bathroom – toilet.