The size of unit problem (Проблема отдельности слова).

In writing the flow of speech is divided into words by empty spaces. The size of unit problem is the problem of how we know when the one word ends and the other word begins in oral speech (the problem of the boundaries of the word).

Scholars worked out several principles which help to single out words in speech. Speech can be studied on three levels:

1) the feature level (уровень дифференциальных признаков / уровень фонем) – studies typical combination of sounds which are acure on word boundaries. Vowels in English never cluster. Consonants can form three types of clusters:

- prevocalic (перед гласной)

- postvocalic (после гласной)

- intervocalic (между гласными)

This branch of linguistics is called phonotactics.

2) semantic level. On this level scholars studies pausation (паузация) and other international species. We make pauses to separate meaningful bits of information. F.e.: On the first floor │ there is a canteen. │

3) metasemeotic level. Words are given emphasis to get them important. F.e.: It’s a completely new book.

Other factors: syllable division (close type is widespread), type of word stress (f.e., fixed stress in French language).

The identity of unit problem (Проблема тождества слова).

When one word ends the other begins? It’s a problem in English.

The nature of the English is one more problem which complicates the matter:

1) English is an analytical language

2) words are invariable and syntactic relations between them are shown by word order

3) English tends to bring its units into complex. F.e.: merry-go-round; sit-by-the-fire; no-nothing; forget-me-not.

Examples:

1) strict compounds.

Hyphen – дефис.

Let sleeping dog lie – 4 words. Let-sleeping-dog-lie – 1 word.

2) loose compounds. F.e.: blue bottle; speech sound.

Different scholars treat this problem differently:

- Some scholars treat the first component as an adjective formed from the noun. In this case the whole complex is a word combination “adjective + noun”. F.e. stone wall.

- The first component is a noun. It means that the whole complex is a compound word because there is such a rule in English that two nouns in common case are always connected by a preposition or conjunction. This problem hasn’t yet been solved. It is “the stone wall” problem.

Scholars try to work out different criteria to solve the problem:

- If it is possible to add to this complex the word “very”, it is a word combination. If it is not, it is a word. But this criteria doesn’t always work (f.e. black market).

- If it is possible to transform this complex into an of-phrase or a phrase with another preposition, it is a compound word. F.e. stone wall – a wall of stone; armchair – a chair with arms. But this criteria doesn’t always work (f.e. toothpick – a pick for tooth – it is impossible).

- If this complex is pronounced with one stress, it is a word (‘blue bottle, ‘blackboard), If each component is stressed, it is a word combination (‘black ‘board). But this criteria doesn’t always work. Compound adjectives in English have two stresses, but they are words, not word combinations (‘blue-‘eyed).

- Nomination criterion. If two elements of this complex express a single notion, they become a word.

3) cases of phonetic, morphological and lexical variation

3.1 phonetic variation – can be accentual (разница в ударении)

3.2 morphological variation takes place when different derivational morphemes are used. F.e. academic – academical, morphologic – morphological; but historic – historical, economic – economical.

3.3 lexical variation – appears as the result of different styles, formal and informal, spoken and written. F.e. examination – exam, laboratory – lab.