Italian Borr-gs are mostly musical terms: allegro, aria, finale, piano, opera, solo, sonata, soprano, trill, violin, macaroni, spaghetti, influenza, umbrella, manifest etc.

Spanish Borr-gs.The Spanish element in English like the Italian is mainly modern, e.g. cigar, embargo, junta, mosquito etc. The following words were introduced through Spanish to Europe from America: coco, chilly, chocolate, tomato, potato, tobacco, canoeing, yucca etc.

Russian Borrowings may be subdivided into 2 principle groups: Borr-gs that took place before 1917 such as: izba, ruble, kopeck, tsar, borzoi, Cossack; borr-gs after 1917. The so-called sovietisms: Bolshevik, soviet, Komsomol, udarnik; later – sputnik, lunnik; recent – perestroika, glasnost, Gorbotchov etc.

Q-7 Assimilation of Borrowings.

Assim-n is a process of adjusting in Phonetics and Lex-gy. The term Assim-n in Etymology is used to denote a partial or total conformation of a borrowed word to the phonetical (graphical and morphological standards and the semantic system of the receiving language (язык-реципиент). There are 3 main types of Assim-n:

1. Phonetic Assimilation – the adjusting of the phonetic structure of a borrowed word to the phonetical system of the recipient language. Loan words not assimilated phonetically retain their foreign pronunciation like most of the French borrowings of the latest time, e.g. police, machine, ballet;

2. Grammatical Assimilation – a conformation of a borrowed word to the morphological standards of the receiving language. Grammatically assimilated loan words acquire English grammatical categories and paradigms, e.g. to count-counted-counting, sputnik-sputniks. Loan words not assimilated grammatically retain their foreign grammatical forms like some nouns borrowed from Latin which keep their original plural inflexions, e.g. phenomenon – phenomena.

3. Lexical Assimilation – a conformation of a borrowed word to the lexico-semantic system of the receiving language. It means that a borrowed word may participate in word building and develop its semantic structure, e.g. sputnik – to out sputniks, sputnikists. Foreign polysemantic words become monosemantic in the receiving language but a borrowed word may develop a new meaning in the receiving language, e.g. palate (the roof of the mouth) has developed a new meaning in English = taste, inclination and interest; and the new derivatives – palatable (tasty) and etc.

There is a noticeable group of words which are not completely assimilated graphically, e.g. ballet, café (with diacritic mark). Degree of Assimilation. depends on the follow factors:

• The time of borrowing. The older the borrowing is, the more thoroughly it’s assimilated

• The frequency of usage

• The way in which the word was adopted. Oral borrowings are assimilated more rapidly and more completely than literary borrowings, e.g. borrowings through writing.

Types of Assimilation

According to the degree of Assimilation, borrowings are subdivided into:

1. completely/fully assimilated words. They correspond to all phonetic, morphological and semantic laws of English and do not felt as borrowings. They are found in all the layers of older borrowings (Latin, Scandinavian, French). Many of them belong to the native word stock of English (cheese, street – Latin; husband, to die, to take – Scandinavian; table – French).

2. partially assimilated borrowed words. They’ve retained:

   1. foreign pronunciation (vase, restaurant)

   2. foreign morphological characteristics (datum – data)

   3. they are not assimilated semantically denoting notion of foreign cultures, nature, customs (steppe, taiga, sombrero). These are foreign realies which have no corresponding equivalents in English.

3. barbarisms (unassimilated borrowed words). These are foreign words used by English people in oral speech or in writing but not assimilated in any way. They usually have corresponding English equivalents, e.g. “Chao” (Italian), “adio”.

Q-8 Etymological doublets.

Among borr-ed words in Eng, we find – international words – words, which come from the same source & are found in many different lang-ges at a given period of time. They express notions, belonging to science, technology, culture politics & everyday life. e.g. motor (Latin), kimono (Japan), coffee (Turkey). Many international words were constructed from Latin & Greek elements nowadays: telephone, television, aerodrom. Such words are called pseudo classical words. International words that come from Eng are: football, out, club, tweed etc. International words of Russian origin in Eng are: tsar, rouble, vodka, sputnik.

Etymological doublets are 2 or more words of the same lang-ge, derived originally from the same route, but having entered the voc-ry at diff-nt periods of time, or from diff-nt sources. They are diff-nt in form & often diff-nt in m-ng, forex: (Fr) prize ← Pris → price, to praise Among groups of etymological doublets, the most important are: 1. doublets from diff-nt lang-ges: a. Eng & Scand: shirt (E)-skirt (Sc), shabby (E)-skabby(Sc); b. Eng & Latin: eatably (E.) – edible (L.), nakid (En.) – nude (L.); c. Eng & Fr: word (En.) – verb (Fr.); d. Latin & Fr: senior (L.) – sir (Fr.), canal – channel; captain – chietton; 2. doublets from diff-t periods of the same lang-ge: a. Norman Fr: card, corpse. Perisian Fr – chart, corps; b. Earlier L (camp) – Later L (campus). 3. doublets from diff-t changes within Eng itself: a. Loss of initial syllable: history – story; example –sample; accute – cute; adventure- venture; b. Vowel interchange: shade – shed, mode – mood, snob – snub.

Etymological thriplets occur very rare in the lang-ge: (L.) hospital, (N-Fr) hostel, (Perisian-Fr) hotel, (L) to capture, (N-Fr) to catch, (Per-Fr) to chase.Hybrids or morphological borr-s – these are derivatives or compound words, which consist of morphemes, originating from different lang-ges. .g. violinist (Italian+Greek), unmistakable (E.+E.+Sc.+Fr), blameless (Fr.+E.)

Translation Loans are words & expressions formed from the material already existing in the Eng lang-ge but according to patterns taken from another lang-ge by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation, e.g.: wall newspaper – stennaya gazeta (Russian), a slip of the tongue – lapsus lingua (Latin); pale-faced, pipe of piece, fire-water – from Indian. Some other translation loans from Russians are: old believer, cult of personality, candidate/doctor of science, white night, Red square, Winter Palace.

Semantic Borrowings are the expansion of the semantic structure of a word under the influence of correlated foreign one. It’s the bor-g of a m-ng from the semantic structure of the correlated foreign word, e.g.: the Eng word pioneer (explorer) under the influence of the new m-ng of the correlated Russian word (пионер) developed one more m-ng: a member of a young pioneer organization; brigade (an army unit) developed one more m-ng – active social workers; norm=standard – norm developed one more m-ng – “an amount of work”.

Sometimes an unfamiliar borrowed word is wrongly associated with the native word resembling only in sound. The change (corruption) of a borrowed word on the basis of fancied analogy with some well-known word or phrase is called false or folk etymology, e.g. cotelette (French word) – cutlet (on the basis of the false association with the verb “to cut”). In the same way “asparagus” (Latin) was transformed into “sparrowgrass” & the French word “moucheron” (мох) – mushroom.

Q-9: Morphemes.

As the biggest units of morphology, words are made up of smaller units – morphemes- is the smallest, indivisible m-ngful lang-ge unit within the structure of a word. Like a word, a morpheme is a two-faced lang-ge unit. It means that a morpheme has a certain m-ng & a certain sound-pattern. But a morpheme is not autonomous, it can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a word.

1. According to their m-ng & their role, morphemes are: Root (roots); Affixational (affixes). The root morpheme is a lexical nuclears, the semantic centre of the word, it has a concrete lexical m-ng & is a common part of a WB cluster (is a group of words with one & the same root morpheme, linked through synchronic derivational relations: dog – doggy – doggish – doggedness – to dog). The root m-me possesses all types of m-ng: lexical, differential (bookshelf - bookcase) & distributional m-ng (order of arrangement m-ng – e.g. boyishness), except the part of speech m-ng.

According to the opposition, affixes are: Prefixes, which proceed the root; Suffixes, which follow the root; Infixes, placed within the root. Infixes are very rare in the Eng lang: e.g. to stand.

According to their function & m-ng, affixes are: Grammatical (suffixes); Derivational (suffixes & preffixes). Gram affixes serve to form new grammar forms of the same word & are studied in Grammar. Derivational affixes serve to build new words & are studied in Lex-gy. The lexical m-ng of affix-nal morphemes is of more generalising character than that of root morphemes. E.g. –er → agent; -less – without. We have about 200 derivative affixes.

2. Structurally morphemes fall into free (root morphemes, which coincide with separate words) & bound morphemes (all derivational affixes & inflections & root morphemes which do not coincide with separate words. E.g. horr- (horrible); angl- (Anglo-saxon). There is a group of so-called semi-free or semi-bound morphemes (semi-affixes) which may function both as root morphemes (-man in manmade, manservant) & as derivational elements (-man in gentleman, cabman).e.g. – like (lady-like...); -proof (waterproof, kissproof).

Affixes should not be confused with the so-called combining forms – bound root morphemes of Greek & Latin origin, which occur in compounds & derivatives mostly international terms, formed in modern times (telephone, telegraph) but some of them begin a new life as semi-affixes (-cide “kill” (L.) in suicide today is used in autocide or biocide).

A morpheme may have several positional, phonetic & graphical variants or representations called allomorphs (please, pleasant, pleasure [pli:z – plezent – ple e]. These 3 variants are allomorphs of one & the same morpheme.The allomorphs of the negative prefixes “in” are “il+l” (illegal), “im + biabils” (impossible), “ir+r” (irregular).

Q-10: The morphological analysis

serves to study the morphological word structure. There are 2 levels of approach to the study of the word structure: The level of morphemic analysis; The level of derivational analysis (WB). (A) The MA aims at breaking the word into constituent morphemes determining their number & types.

The procedure,used for segmenting words into constituent morphemes,is the method of immediate & ultimate constituents (метод непосредст-ных и конечных сост-их). At each stage of the analysis the word is broken into 2 parts which are called immediate constituents on the basis of procedures of the identification of the root & the identification of the affix. The possibility of these procedures is determined by 2 main characteristics of the morpheme: the repetition in diff-nt distributional structures in the same lang; the ability to render a certain amount of information, i.e. to possess a seperate individual m-ng. The analysis is completed when we arrive at the constituents incapable of further division, e.i. morphemes. They are called “ultimate constituents”: unreasonable → un (I.C, U.C.)+reasonable(1, I.C.)→ reason(2, I.C./U.C.)+able(uc).

According to the number of morphemes words are classified: monomorphic (root) words; polymorphic.

According to the number of root morphemes polymorphemic words are divided into monoradical (1- root words) & polyradical (with 2 or more roots).

Monoradical words fall into 3 subtypes: radical – suffixal (acceptable); radical prefixal (to unbutton); prefixo-radical-suffixal (unreasonable). Polyradical: those consisting of 2 or more roots (blackboard); those const –g of 2 or more roots & 1 or more affixes (looking-glass). According to their segmentability words are: segmentable = polymorphic; non-segmentable (monomorphic root-words). There are 3 types of segmentability of words in Eng: 1. in case of complete seg-ty the U.C.-s are morphemes proper: worker; 2. in case of conditional seg-ty (условная) the U.C.s are pseudo-morphemes: to retain – to detain- to contain; to receive-to deceive- to conceive. Have no lexical m-ng; 3. in case of defective seg-ty at least 1 of the UC-s is a unique morpheme: pocket(a unique morpheme) – lionet, locket, hogget. The existance of words that are difficult to analyse is due to the folowing: to borr-ng from diff-nt lang-s; to the changes in their morphological structure that some words underwent in the course of their historical development. (B) The MA doesn’t reveal the way a word is constructed. It’s revealed on the derivational level of the analysis which deals with the derivational structure of a word. the morphemic & derivative structures of the word are closely connected & often coincide, they are interpreted differently: to water: on the MorphLevel – just a root word; but on the Deriv.L. – it’s a derived word formed by means of conv-n from the noun “water”. The nature types & arrangement of ICs are known as its derivative structure. Basic units of the Deriv Structure of words are: derivational basis; Deriv affixes; deriv patterns.Derivation b/w words within common roots but of different derivative structure are known as derivative relations. Derivational relations make the subject of study at the derivational level of analysis. “The deriv-l analysis” aims at establishing correlations b/w diff-nt types of words, the structural & semantic patterns the words are built on. “A deriv-l base” is the constituent of a word which participates in WB. It is the part of a word which establishes connection with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative & determines its individual lexical m-ng.

Structurally, deriv-l base falls: 1. basis that coincides with morphological stems of diff-nt degrees of complexity. (cложность): duetiful, - lly, daydreamer. The morphological stem of a word is the part of the word which takes on the system of gram-al inflexions & remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. Derivationally the stems that serve as this class of basis are: Simple - consisting of a simple root morpheme ( girl-girly); A derived stem consists of a root morpheme & one or more affixes (girlish – ly ) to parrot – is a one morpheme, it’s still derived; A compound stem consists of 2 or more other stems e.g. matchbox stems may be also free (capable of building a word without adding other morphemes: handy) & bound (if it can‘t form a separate word by itself: philosopher). 2. basis that concides with word forms is confined to verbal word forms: the present & past participles & is characterized by limited collacability. ( unknown, smilingly, mockingbird). 3. basis which coincides with word groups also allow a limited range of collocability & are the most active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives & nouns. ( blue-eyed, second-gradeness, do-gooder).

A deriv-l pattern is a regular m-ngful arrangement, structure that imposes rigid rules on the order & the nature of the deriv-l basis & affixes that may be brought together. It shows the types of immediate constituents, their order & arrangement which signals the part of speech & structural & semantic peculiarities, common to all the indivdual words, formed according to this pattern. Patterns are represented in terms of usual symbols, where small letters m,a,d,hum,v stand for the stems of the respective parts of speech (long-fingered – [(a+n) + ed] ). Deriv-l patterns may represent the derivat. structure at diff-nt levels of generalization: 1. At the level of structure or types specifying only the class membership of ICs & the direction of motivation, such as a+st→n; prf+n→v. Patterns of this type are known as structural fomulas; 2. The deriv.structure of words may be represented at the level of structural-semantic types, which specify the base classes & individual. It follows that deriv. Patterns may be classified into 2 types: 1) structural 2) structural semantic.

Q-11: Affixation