The Functional Classification.

If we regard a set phrase as a word equivalent & pay attention to the function it fulfils in the language, we can subdivide set-phrases into:

1. Verbal phrase e.g. to call spade a spade; to cook one’s goose;

2. Substantive e.g. a red rag to a bull; a house of cards; the jaws of death;

3. Adjectival phrase e.g. as mad as hatter; as dead as a dawnail; as hungry as a hunter;

4. Adverbal phrase e.g. b/w 2 fires; by hook or by crook (не нытьём так катаньем); for love or money;

5. Prepositional phrase e.g. in front of; in the middle of;

6. Conjunction phrase e.g. as soon as; Interjectional phrase e.g. my God!; well, I never!

The Structural Clas-on

The traditional classification is the classification of phraseological units according to their structural type, represented by their distributional formulae, e.g. to lose flesh (худеть) – V+N; dull fish (скучный) Adj+N. The latest achievement is the classification worked out by professor Koonin. In his classification, classes of phraseological units are distinguished on the basis of the function of phraseological units in the course of communication which is determined by the structural & semantic pecularities.

Koonin’s structural semantico-functional phraseological units are subdivided into:

1. nominative: substantive e.g. wear & tare; see how the land lies; ships that pass in the night;verbal e.g. to pull one’s leg; weadle one’s thungs; adjectival e.g. long in the tooth; as good as gold; adverbial e.g. lock stock in barrel = safe & sound out of the blue sky.

2. nominative communicative include verbal word-combinations admitting of the passive transformation. E.g. to cross the Rubicon- the Rubicon is crossed; to break the ice – the ice is broken.

3. interjectional & modal include all sorts of interjectional set expressions & sentences e.g. dog my cats!- чёрт возьми! Hold your horses!- попридержи коней.

4. communicative include all types of sentences except nominal & interjectional e.g. a penny saved is a penny gained; hungry bellies have no ears; the coast is clear. According to the etymological principle, set-phrases may be divided into native & borrowed. Alongside with the oriental idioms, borrowed from the Bible (daily bread; to cast pearls before swine), the stock of English set phrases includes idioms, borrowed from Greek, Latin, French, e.g. (Gr) – Pyrrich Victory; platonic love; to nourish a wiper in one’s bosom; (L) – to cross the Rubicon, to plow the sand (толочь воду в ступе); to bear the palm (пальма первенства); (French) – to be on velvet (жить в роскоши); to praise to the skies/ it goes without saying; to make a figure.

Q-31:FEATURES ENHANCING UNITY.

Set expressions have their own specific features, which enhance their stability & cohesion.

These are their euphonic, imaginative, connotative qualities. SE are rhythrnical, contain alliteration, rhyme, imagery, contrast, are based on puns. Their cementing function is also important. E.g sage & sound is more reassuring than uninjured – which is a sym-m.

Euphonic & connotative qualities prevent any substitution because it’ll would destroy the euphonic effect. E.g. safe & sound - secure & uninjured has the same denotational m-ng but sounds so dull and trivial that the phrase may be considered destroyed, so safe & sound admits no substitution.

Rhythmic qualities are characteristic of almost all SE. They are especially marked in such pairs as far and near, heart and soul.

Rhythm is combined with reiteration in the following well-known phrases: more and more, one by one.

Alliteration oc­curs in many cases: then and there, in for a penny, in for a pound; head over heels; without rhyme or reason. Alliterative phrases often contain obsolete elements. E.g might & main (an obsolete syn-m to might). As one of the elements becomes obsolete and falls out of the language demotivation may set in, & this tends to increase the stability and constancy of a SE. E.g. hue & cry, leave in the lurch.

Rhyme is also characteristic of SE: fair and square honest ; by hook or by crook 'by any method, right or wrong'.

Semantic stylistic features contracting SE into units of fixed context are: simile (as like as 2 peas), contrast (for love or money, sooner or later), metaphor (to swallow the pill), synonymy (by leaps & bounds, proud & haughty). SE tend to keep their history.

Very many examples of metaphors are connected with: the sea: be on the rocks, smooth sailing, weather the storm. with agriculture: plough the sand, to reap a rich harvest.

To sum it all up, the memorableness of a SE, as well as its unity, is assisted by various factors such as rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, imagery & even the muscular feeling one gets, when pronouncing them.

Q-32. The stylistic differention of the EV. Neutral words. SEV.

In the process of com-n the choice of words & ling-c is determined by the character of a speech situation, by a specific sphere of com-n. Systems of ling-c expressive means: phonetical, grammatical & lexical – peculiar to specific spheres of com-n are called functional styles, & are studied in Stylistics.

Different functional styles, alongside with the peculiarities on Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics, are characterized by the use of certain layers of the voc, specific for them, studied both in Stylistics & Lex-gy, from different angles.

The use of words in certain functional styles is determined by the character of the stylistic component of m-ng in their semantic structure. Part of the words a speaker uses is independent of the sphere of com-n. They may be used in any situation – lecture, poem, when speaking to a child. These words are called stylistically neutral or unmarked words. They are used in all functional styles.

They form the core of Standard Eng voc, which also includes literary bookish vocabulary of a general character, namely general or common literary bookish Eng words & colloquial vocabulary of general character, - literary colloquial words.

All the words below standard voc-y in the system of stylistic differentiation of the Eng voc-ry form substandard voc-ry, including: Familiar colloquial words; Slang; Vernacular; Dialect words; Vulgarisms.

Words, suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres of communication, characteristic only of certain functional styles, are called stylistically marked or colored words.

According to the character of the connotational stylistic component & the prevalent sphere of usage, stylistically colored fall into:

♦ Formal or literary bookish;

♦ Informal or conversational (colloquial).

From the stylistical point of view, the Eng voc-ry may be divided into stylistically unmarked neutral words & to stylistically marked layers of words, opposed to each other – formal & informal.

Q-33: General Literary-bookish vocabulary.

Literary bookish words may be divided into:

1. General literary bookish words (which are not limited by spheres of com-n);

2. Functional or special literary bookish words.

General literary bookish words are known to all educated speakers, irrespective of their profession or occupation. They are typical of written sphere & are used in writing sphere & polished sphere (lectures, official speech, etc.) General literary bookish words are mostly morphologically complicated, borrowed, monosemantic, & rarely used.

E.g. to commence (to begin); accommodations (rule); heterogeneous (various); commendation (praise).

GLBV includes several heterogeneous subdivisions of words:

• words of scientific prose

• official words

1. Words of scientific prose are precise, dignified and have a dry matter-of-fact flavor.

Ex. To comprise,to compile, divergent

2. Officialese – special words & expressions used in official documents, words of official and plutocratic language: in terms of, in virtue of, the seller & the buyer.

Here belong connectives, such as: whereby, hereafter; hereupon.

Double conj-ns: furthermore, moreover. Group conj-ns: in consequence of; in as much as.

3. Literary-refined words are mostly polysyllabic words, they are fully assimilated phonetically, and some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. They also seem to retain a loftiness associated with the lofty contexts in which they have been used for centuries.

Ex. Solitude, delusion, illusive, felicity

Though, GLB words are associated mainly with printed page, educated people use them quite natural in every day speech. Their speech is certainly richer but at the same time excessive use of GLBW in conversational speech may lead to absurditism and produce a comic effect. Such words should be used with care and introduced into speech in moderation.

Q- 34. Special literary-bookish vocabulary.

Special literary bookish words include: terms, poetic words, archaic words, & neologisms of the literal character, foreign words or barbarisms.

A term is a word or a word-group, specifically employed in a branch of knowledge, science, technique, trade or art, to convey a notion, peculiar to this branch. A term is a word or a phrase with a fixed denotatum. Terms should be monosemantic, e.g. connecting rod (шатун); bar magnet (брусковый магнит); phoneme; morpheme. But some terms have become widely known & lost their monosemantic character, e.g. airforce → BBC (было – аэродинамика); plane → самолёт (было – плоскость → крыло).

Poetic words are those used in poetry & aimed at producing an elevated affect. They are very rarely used, highly literary words which serve to create a special alleviated atmosphere of poetry. Many poetic words are also archaic: wave-billow, brine-sea, steed-horse, cows-kine.

Neologisms, archaisms & barbarisms are usually included in the stylistic classification of the Eng voc, though they are differentiated on different principles.

Neologisms are opposed to archaisms on the time access.

Barbarisms are opposed to native words, in the opposition: borrowed – native, but as they are not deprived of certain stylistic characteristics, their inclusion into the stylistic classification of the vocabulary is justified.

Neologisms are new words & word-combinations (built or borrowed) & new m-ngs of words, which serve as new names for new things & notions or for old things & notions, & which are felt by the speakers as something new.

E.g. new words & phrases for new notions: condominium = a cooperative apartment house; EPA = environment protection agency; echocrisis = ecological crisis; environpolitics = environmental politics; intelsat = international telecommunications satellite.

New names for old notions: Afro-American = Negros;Native American = Indian; New m-ngs: A boyscout = a naive man (or a politician);A challenge = a difficulty.

As the word stock of the Eng lang is in the process of constant development, new words appear in the language while some other words grow old & drop out of the lang-ge, they are called archaic. The process of disappearance of a word is gradual.

When a word becomes rarely used, when it is gradually passing out of general use, we call it – obsolescent. In Eng these are: thoug & ye – the pronouns & their forms: thee, thine, thy, yonder. The obsolescent elements, preserved in a style of official documents, are: hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed.

The words that have already gone out of use, but are still recognized by Eng speakers, are called obsolete: methinks, nay.

The words that have dropped out of the language & are no longer recognized, are called archaic words proper: vernal (spring); wight(man); brine, troth (face). Archaisms may be used in poetry, oration, and official documents. Some archaic elements may be found in common Eng words: e.g. mermaid – mere (lake, sea); garlic gar (spear); lic – leac-OE (plant). Archaisms shouldn’t be mixed up with historical words, denoting the representatives of the previous epochs.

Historical words are those, denoting things, no longer in use; they perform a historical distinctive function: hoopskirt, cataphract, katapult.

Barbarisms or foreign words are borrowed ones, completely unassimilated in the Eng lang, though known to every Eng speaker. Barbarisms usually have their native neutral synonyms: e.g. brochure = booklet; fiction = belle-lettre; nolens = volens.

Words & expression of the formal layer of the Eng voc are used in written sphere, books, & magazines, radio & TV (in formal official talk). These types of com-n are usually reduced to monologues & often prepared in advance.

Q-35: Informal conversational vocabulary.

The informal or conversational layer of the English vocabulary is represented by the groups of colloquialisms, slang, vulgarisms, vernacular, dialect words, and neologisms of the conversational character. Colloquial words & expressions lie on the boundary line between standard & substandard English vocabulary. The group of colloquialisms is subdivided into:

• Literary colloquial words;

• Familiar colloquial words.

The latter group belongs to substandard English vocabulary, the stratification of the

Colloquial English vocabulary may be reflected in the following diagram borrowed in its main characteristics by Homjakov.

Colloquialisms are words & expressions used in informal everyday speech, among the members of one family, close relatives & bosom friends; they are not used among people whose relations are only formal, official. E.g. dad, ma, kid, chap, get out, etc.

According to Скреднев, colloquial words demonstrate the minimal degree of stylistic degradation. Arnold divides colloquial words into:

• Literary colloquial words;

• Familiar colloquial words

Literary colloquial words are informal words used by educated people, usually purposely, in the course of ordinary conversations or writing letters to intimate friends: e.g. chap, pal, cham, bite, and snack.

Familiar colloquial words are more emotional, more free & careless; than literary coll words: e.g. boneshaker – драндулет; eyeful – a pretty woman; a kick off – beginning; old star – старикан; stumper – a difficult _____; wherewithal – money.

The terms low-coll & vernacular may be used as interchangeable & applied to denote words & expressions used in illiterate popular speech of uneducated people. They are informal substandard words, outside literary usage, often characterized by a distorted morphological & phonetic structure: e.g. vern.-gal=girl; pard=partner, friend.

Vernacular words are closely connected with local dialects. Dialects or dialect words are conversational, substandard words, generally confined in their use to a definite locality.

Territorial dialects or regional varieties of the English language in modern English passing out of existence, due to the leveling influence of 1 national English literary language. Some of the words from the territorial dialects have entered standard colloquial English & become quite common. To these words belong: lass=a girl (beloved); lad=a boy; daft=silly; to bide=to wait.

Vulgarisms or vulgar words & expressions occupy the lowest step of the lower part of Скреднев’s ethnical & esthetical scale. They are characterized by the maximal degradation & are rejected by the whole system of morals & ethics of the community. Vulgarisms are rude & even obscene words & expressions with a strong emotive coloring of coarseness & rudeness, which are not used in decent speech & in the presence of women & children. They form the stylistically lowest group, considered too offensive for polite usage.

Vulgarisms include: curse or swear words, bad names or terms of abuse, also coarse words, denoting parts of the human body and acts not spoken of in public.

One of the classifications of Vulgarisms includes:

1. Expletives (брань) & swear words. The mildest are: damn, bloody, goddamn;

2. obscene words: sun of a bitch, bastard, etc.;

3. Taboo words or for letter words.

Vulgarisms may be frequent in affective colloquial speech but it used too frequently, Vulgarisms lose their emotional quality.

One of the characteristic features of the informal vocabulary is the absence of sharply defined boundaries between its various layers. The interpretation of the adjoining stylistic layers becomes most apparent within the colloquial sphere (some of the common words were coll words): e.g. sky-scraper, sweater. But the following colloquial words came the coll layer from slang & dialects: e.g. leg – каторжник; noddle- башка came from Argo or Cent; rag – грубые шутки, row – from student slang; bing – кутёж, выпивка; spunk – пыл; pudgy – толстяк → came from Northern dialects.

Q-36: The problem of Slang.

The term "slang" which is widely used in Eng lex-gy & stylistics is not specified yet. It has rather an obscure etymology. Some ling-ts think that this word is an abbreviation of the words "soldier's language". Others attribute the origin of the term to the 2^nd form of the verb "to sling"-fig. to speak freely, without formality", which goes back to the jargon of Eng Gypsies. Professor T.R. Galperin who rejects the term "slang" writes that "There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous & obscure as the term slang.

Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day Eng.

The analysis of diff-nt definitions of "slang" shows that it is represented both as a special voc-ry & as a special lang. it stands to reason to define slang as a special layer of substandard Eng voc-ry but not as a special lang.

If slang is given a status of a certain lang, then it should be characterized not only by its peculiar voc-ry but also by phonetic, morphological and syntactical peculiarities, which is not so. the majority of ling-ts apply the term "slang" to a broad layer of substandard Eng voc-ry bordering on colloquialisms on the one hand and vulgar words on the other hand in the system of the stylistic differentiation of the Eng voc-ry.

According to the sphere of usage slang is divided into general & special.

General includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group.

According to Arnold "slang words and phrases are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics”.

E.g head" is called "attic, brain-pan, hat-peg, nut, upper story, dome, and chimney. »A pretty girl or woman" - "babe, baby-doll, barbecue, chick, tootsy-wootsy. » A friend" - "bud, buddy-buddy, bugger, buster.", "a stupid person" - "apple-head, cheese-head, dumb-bell, chunkhead.

Slang words are common words used in a transferred m-ng & the transference is based on metaphor .or metonymy:

e.g. "dome" sl. for a head is based on metaphor; “barbecue" for a pretty girl is based on metonymy; also on hyperbole: Killing (astonishing); on irony: "clear as mud".

Mostly, the transference is based on a joke & is aimed to show the object of speech in the light of a contemptuous ridicule. it makes slang words sound somewhat harsh and even cynical or vulgar.

E.g: bread-basket - "stomach ".

There is also slang words proper built with the help of various WB means. e.g, "devoon" may stand for divine, "to dilly-dally".

Slang words may have stylistically neutral syn-ms e.g. "attic" "head", "beans". Some slang words have no "neutral syn-ms & should be described in standard Eng.

Special slang includes the groups of social and professional jargons & argo or cant.

Jargonisms are words and expressions created by certain social groups for the use within the particular circle. University students' slang in the USA dates very quickly and differs from one university to another.

E.g., "a hard working student" generally known as "a grind" in students' slang in different universities is also called "a tool, a squid, a superstrap, a throat". "Difficult courses" go under the names of "hard cores, killers, grinders". Usually jargon words and phrases are difficult to understand; unintelligible for the outsiders as the main feature of jargonisms is their secret nature.

Argo or cant is the jargon of the underworld, the voc-ry of criminals, thieves; tramps may serve as an illustration of such a jargon in which words are used to conceal their real m-ng.

Cant words do not show their motivation: e.g. "blot out" means "to kill", "knuck"-"a pick-pocket", "book"-"a life sentence”.

The so-called rhyming slang based on reduplication, back slang & medial slang or centre slang are characteristic of argot formations aimed at secrecy. in rhyming slang "to beat feet" means "to hurry. in back slang bad is changed into dap. in medial slang "a person" becomes "a nosper". the term "cant" etymologically seems to be connected with the word "chant" ("to sing") & probably implied at 1^st the pleading tones of beggars lamentations.

Professional slang are words & expressions used in oral, informal intercourse in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professional words commonly denote some working processes or implements of labor. Professionalisms are correlated to terms as informal usually jocular names of substandard voc-ry to the words of the formal official intercourse. Here are some professional words used in different trades: piper - a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream pipe. WB in Slang. Slang is one of the most unstable layers of the Eng Voc. It requires continuous innovation.

Slang words and phrases are mostly short-lived but some of them appear to be stable and even find their way into StandEng. The follow words of Standard Eng used to be slang: bus, mob, fun, snob, jazz.

General slang comes mostly from jargon and professional words and expressions whose popularity has increased. Any cultural subgroup may develop its own jargon which can later become general slang.

Affixation: doper - dope or narcotic addict. in composition slang favors some frequent roots, such as: -butcher, -chaser, -down(er), -driver, -eater, -factory, -fiend, -fighter, -guard, -house, -head, -daffy, -dippy, dizzy (syn for crazy), -eyed, -mad, etc, which may even acquire the status of semi-affixes. e.g: cofee- butcher (seller), jazz- fiend (jazz-lover), money-mad, girl-chaser.

Clippings & abbreviation are very popular in slang. e.g. caf (cafeteria); def (definitely). A number of slang words are formed by means of reduplication: din-din "dinner".

Some slang words are built by means of blending: mingy = mean + stingy. Literary- colloquial words should be taught and learned and used in the appropriate situation. While familiar-colloquial words, slang words, low colloquial, dialect words, to say nothing of vulgar words should be only understood but never used by a foreigner. They are recommended only as a part of the passive voc-y of a student of Eng.

Q-37: Standart English, local dialects.

Standard Eng is the official lang of Great Britain, taught at schools & universities, used by the press, radio & TV, spoken by educated people. it is that form of Eng, that is current and literary, recognized as acceptable wherever Eng is spoken or understood.

Ling-ts distinguish territorial variants and local dialects of the lang-ge. Variants of a lang are regional variants, possessing a literary form. There are 2 variants of Eng on the territory of the British Isles - Scottish & Irish. They have a special ling-c status of variants as compared with local dialects proper cause of the literature composed in them. There are quite a number of words in standard Eng which penetrated from Scottish & Irish Eng-blarney - flattery, bog -болото, shamrok-трилистник whiskey. Some of the most frequently used Scotisizms are: bairn-ребёнок, bonny-красивый, lassy- a girl, glamour- charm, kilt, slogan, tartan. The main variants of the Eng outside Great Britain are Am English, Eng in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Local dialects are variants of the Eng lang characteristic for & used in some localities and districts, which have no standards.