2. Declamatory style:

1.Listen to the Tapescripts (8, 9); mark stresses and tunes; dramataize. Analyze the peculiariries of the style according to the plan.

2. Listen to the Tapescript 10, mark stresses and tunes, analyse the style of the story according to the plan; prepare for the artistic reading, trying to imitate the tapescript.

3. PUBLICISTIC STYLE: Listen to any Tapescript (11 – 13), mark stresses and tunes; analyze the peculiarities of the style; prepare for artistic reading, trying to imitate the tapescript.

4. ACADEMIC STYLE: Listen to the Tapescripts (14, 15), mark stresses and tunes; analyse the peculiarities of the style; read the extract, trying to imitate the tapescript.

5. INFORMATIONAL STYLE: Listen to any Tapescript (16 – 19), mark stresses and tunes; analyze the peculiarities of the style; prepare the reading of the

text, trying to imitate the tapescript.

6. CONVERSATIONAL STYLE: Listen to one of the dialogues (Tapescripts 20 – 23), mark stresses and tunes; analyze the peculiarities of the style; dramatize one of the dialogues, trying to imitate the tapescript.

Plan of phonostylistic analysis.

1. General short description of the peculiarities of the style.

2. The aim of the speech or the dialogue represented.

3. Main lexical and syntactical stylistic devices used in the fragment and their intonational peculiarities.

4. The sense-groups division.

5. Basic intonation patterns (pre-head, scale, nuclear tone).

6. Tempo.

7. Pauses.

EXAMPLE OF PHONOSTYLISTIC ANALYSIS.

1. This extract (poem/text) belongs to the poetic style, which is characterized by … (a few sentences from the theory).

2. This fragment (poem/text) was prepared beforehand. The purpose of the analyzed fragment is … . The speaker sounds …

3. In the extract (poem/text) I came across the following lexical, stylistic devices: … (e.g. epithet, metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, understatement, irony, etc), which were mainly pronounced as part of the … scale or with the … tone(e.g. …).

As for syntactic structure of this text, the main feature of it is the frequent use of …(e.g. rhetorical questions, inversions, elipses, repetition, parallel constructions, etc), usually as part of the … scale or with the … tone (e.g. … ). Sometimes the speaker utters … with the High Fall, making the sentence more emphatic and significant (e.g. …).

4. As for sense-groups division, this fragment is generally characterized by the use of short and very short sense groups. It can be explained by the fact that the speaker tries to make very important item of the speech more emphatic (e.g. …). At the same time some phrases are characterized by an alternation of short and long sense-groups, because some of them are filled with relatively unimportant words in contrast with more significant short sense-groups.

5. The basic intonation patterns used here include High Level Scale showing the importance of the utterance and Broken Scale (both descending and ascending) due to extensive use of accidental rises making the utterance more emphatic (e.g. …).

Speaking about nuclear tones of final

intonation groups we must note the most

frequent tone here is the Low Fall (e.g. …).

But sometimes when the continuation of the

speaker’s idea is implied , the Low Rise is used

(e.g.). The use of the High Fall or compound

tunes is very rare in this fragment.

The shape of the nuclear syllable pitch

movement in non-final intonation groups is more

varied. Both simple and compound tunes

are used here but the Low Rise prevails over the

other times (e.g…).

6. As far as tempo is concerned, it’s mainly slow (e.g. …).

Variations in duration are seldom observed in this fragment.

7. Pauses are always semantically significant. That’s why they are widely used in this extract. The length of pauses varies from short to

long. But long non-filled pauses are more common (e.g. …).

Терминологический вокабуляр - справочник.

Данный раздел содержит основные термины, необходимые для изучения курса теоретической фонетики, с их кратким пояснением.

GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS.

A

ACCENT – is stress and pitch combined.

ACCOMODATION – adaptation of two different adjacent sounds.

ACCURACY OF PRONUNCIATION – correct and distinct pronunciation.

ACCOUSTIC PHONETICS – a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.

ADJACENT SOUNDS – sounds that follow each other.

AFFRICATES - the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a flat-slit narrowing.

ALLOPHONES are sounds which are variants of a phoneme: they usually occur in

different positions in a word and cannot contrast with each other, nor be used to make

meaningful distinctions.

ALTERNATION OF SOUNDS changes of the sounds in different derivatives from the

same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different allomorphs

of the same morpheme, child — children.

ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes a

complete obstruction with the alveoles, for example, /t, d, s, /.

ALVEOLES, or ALVEOLI — depressions in the upper jaw, which socket the upper

teeth.

APEX —the tip of the tongue.

APICAL — articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the

alveolar ridge.

ARTICULATE — to pronounce audibly and distinctly.

ARTICULATION — coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of speech.

ARTICULATION BASIS - must be comprehended as the whole complex of movements and positions of the speech organs which are habitual for a given language in the process of articulating its phonemes.

ARTICULATORY PHONETICS — is the branch of phonetics that studies the way in

which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination

of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds

ASPECTS OF A PHONEME : a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects 1.

material, real and objective, 2. abstractional and generalized; 3 functional.

ASPIRATION — a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in

initial position.

ASSIMILATION — the result of adaptation of one sound to another. It can be

progressive, regressive or reciprocal. Most commonly the sounds which undergo

assimilation are immediately adjacent in the stream of speech.

ATTITUDINAL FUNCTION — this function is performed by intonation when the

speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying by intonation alone.

B

BACK the term is used in phonetics to characterize the vowels, which are formed with

the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the

junction between the hard and the soft parts of the palate.

BACK ADVANCED VOWELS — the term characterizes vowels, which are formed

with the back advanced position of the bulk of the tongue.

BACKLINGUAL CONSONANTS- are articulated by the back of the tongue against the

soft palate.

BICENTRAL — formed with two places of articulation.

BILABIAL - articulated by the upper and the lower lip. Bilabial consonants are: /p, w, b, m/.

BLOCK — to prevent the air from flowing out of the mouth cavity when the soft palate

is lowered and the air passes out of the nasal cavity. The air passage through the mouth

cavity is blocked in the articulation of /m, n/.

BLOW — to direct the air from the mouth or nasal cavity.

BREATH — the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the

bronchi and the wind pipe, or blowing it into the lungs.

BRONCHI — two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs.

C

CENTRAL CONSTRIC1VE SONANTS - in articulating central sonants the flow of the air passes through the mouth along the central line of the tongue.

CENTRAL VOWELS — vowels formed by the central part of the tongue.

CHECKED VOWELS short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by strong voiceless consonants, e g HI in die word city.

CHEEKS — sides of the mouth cavity.

CLEAR SOUND the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work.

COMBINATORY ALLOPHONES appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of one phoneme upon another.

COMMUTATION METHOD — one of the basic methods of phonemic investigation, which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.

COMPARATIVE PHONETICS — this branch of phonetics studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages.

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION — takes place when an allophone of one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of context in which no other allophone of the same phoneme occurs.

COMPLETE ASSIMILATION — assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other.

CONSONANT — a sound of noise which is formed by a complete or incomplete obstruction. As a rule, consonants are non syllabic.

CONSTRICTIVE CONSONANTS - in making constrictive consonants the active organs of speech do not block the air-passage completely, but form a narrowing of the air-passage

CONSTRICTIVE FRICATIVE SOUNDS— in the articulation of these sounds the air passage is narrowed or constricted to such an extent that the air passing through it produces noise or friction.

CONSTRICTIVE SONANTS — in the articulation of these sounds the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely, on the other hand it is wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. They are /w, 1, r/.

CONTRASTIVE DISTRIBUTION means that the phonemes are found in contrastive distribution.

CUCUMINAL CONSONANTS - in articulating cacuminal forelingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip of the tongue while a spoon-shaped depression is formed in the central part of the tongue.

D

DARK SOUND — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work

DEFECTS OF SPEECH — drawbacks in pronunciation.

DENTAL CONSONANTS — consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the

tongue placed against the upper front teeth. For example /t, d, n/.

DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS — studies the contemporary phonetic system of a

language i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic

units of this language.

DIACHRONIC APPROACH — a branch of phonetics that deals with analysis of the phenomena which refers to different periods of development.

DIACRITIC MARKS — additional symbols used to characterize separate phonemes or their allophones.

DIALECTOLOGY — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.

DICTION a way of speaking the selection and control of words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, etc). DIPHTHONG — a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide.

DIPHTHONGIZATION slight shifting of the organs of speech position with in the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation.

DIPHTHONGOIDS — diphthongized sounds that is the sounds in production of which the active organs of speech glide from one position to another within articulation of the same sound.

DISTINCTIVE ACCENTEME - the term which is used to denote a suprasegmental phonological unit which serves to perform distinctive function

DISTINCTIVE (RELEVANT) FEATURES are those articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme.

DISTRIBUTION means the totality of all possible contexts in which a given language unit is used.

DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS — this method helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.

DORSAL CONSONANTS — pronounced with the blade the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

DOUBLE OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along two lines, i.e. they

have two distinctively relevant features.

DOUBLE STRESS — two stresses within one and the same word, e g disagree

DYNAMIS STRESS - special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation.

E

ELISION — dropping off of a vowel in initial or terminal position.

EMPHASIS — combination of the expressive means of the language to single out

emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.

EMPHATIC — that which refers to emphasis.

ENCLITIC — unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word

or syllable.

EXHALE — to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity. EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS - the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and calculations with the help of different apparatus and

devices.

EXPLOSION — noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a complete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion. EXTRALINGUISTIC FACTORS - It is the sum total of factors which lie outside any possibility of signaling linguistic meaning . The analysis shows that any extralinguistic situation can be defined by three components, mat is purpose, participants, setting. These components distinguish situation as the context within which interaction (communication) occurs.

F

FALL — lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.

FIXED STRESS - that is it may fall on any syllable in a word: on the first—'mother, on

the second—occasion, on the third - opportunity

FLAT NARROWING — passage for the flow of air, which is more or less flat. The

sounds /f, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.

FORELINGUAL— articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the upper teeth or

the teeth ridge For example: /t, d, n/are forelingual consonants.

FORTIS CONSONANTS — voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis

consonants).

FREE VOWEL - a vowel which is followed by a weak voiced consonant

FREE WORD ACCENT — the type of accent which is characterized by the free

accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can

be stressed — the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a)

constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: wonder, wonderfully and b)

shifting, which changes its place: с’ад, садов’од.

FREE VARIATION a pattern of distribution in which a phoneme do not change its

basic qualities, for example: e.g. the pronunciation of [p, t, k] with different degrees of

aspiration.

FRICATIVE CONSONANTS — produced by friction of the flow of air through the narrowing formed by articulatory organs. For example: /v, s, z/.

FRONT OF THE TONGUE — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the

middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians.

FRONT VOWELS — vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward

and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate.

FUNCTIONAL STYLISTICS - the branch of linguistics that is primarily concerned with

the problems of functional styles.

G

GENERAL AMERICAN — the most widespread type of educated American speech.

GENERAL PHONETICS — a branch of phonetics that deals with analysis, description,

and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.

GLIDE - the second element of a diphthong.

GLOTTAL STOP — a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the

vocal cords, before a vowel sound is heard, in cases of emphatic speech.

GLOTTIS — the space between the vocal cords, which is the entrance to the trachea, or

the windpipe.

H

HARD PALATE — the roof of the mouth.

HEAD — stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening

unstressed syllables.

HISS — noise produced when the air passes through a round narrowing and produces hissing noise.

HISTORICAL ASSIMILATION — sound changes, which are the result of the historical development of the language.

HISTORICAL PHONETICS — that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level, it is apart of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.

I

INTERCOMMUNICATION - giving or passing information by means of oral speech. INTERPRETATION - is the stage when the linguistic information is interpreted. INTONATION — a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow meaning as pitch variations or speech melody. It manifests itself in the delimitative function within a sentence and at its end.

INTONATION GROUP — an actualized sense group.

IRRELEVANT FEATURES - different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds, which do not make them allophones of different phonemes, e.g.: partial devoicing of terminal voiced consonants, variation in the positional length of vowels.

INVARIANT - is a functionally relevant bundle of articulatory features which can't be changed without affecting the meaning.

J

JAWS – parts of the mouth, which bear teem and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.

JUNCTION — the joining of two sounds or words.

JUNCTURE — the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.

K

KINETIC — relating to motion, producing motion.

L

LABIAL — relating to the lips.

LABIAL CONSONANT — articulated by the lips. For example /p, b/

LABIO-DENTAL - a consonant produced with the help of the lower lip being pressed

against the upper teeth.

LABIALIZATION — lip rounding.

LABIALIZED VOWELS — vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding.

LARYNX — an organ of the respiratory tract above the wind pipe. It consists of an

elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords.

LATERAL SOUNDS — sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or

passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time the contact is

made by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teeth ridge as in /l/ articulation.

LAWS OF PHONEMIC AND ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION —1 if different

speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they are allophones of different

phonemes, 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the

same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.

LAX VOWELS — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the

tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as in the articulation

of tense vowels.

LENGTH OF THE SOUND — length of the sound waves in the articulation of a sound.

LENIS — pronounced with weak articulation: /b, d, z... /.

LETTERS — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech

sounds.

LEVEL TONE - tone neutral in its communicative function, which is used mostly in poetry.

LINGUAL CONSONANTS- in pronouncing lingual consonants the obstruction is

formed by the tongue.

LONG VOWELS - the vowels having a relatively bigger length, or quantity in

comparison with the short vowels.

LOSS OF PLOSION — in phonetics it is absence of some articulatory work. Loss of

plosion, sound, etc, e.g. act— loss of plosion in /k/.

LOW LEVEL TONE - characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables of parenthetic

groups or long tails.

LUNGS — the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce sounds. The

latter also regulate the force of the air pressure and produce vibrations in the intensity of

speech sounds.

M

MEDIOLINGUAL CONSONANTS - are articulated by the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate.

MELODY - changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.

METHOD OF MINIMAL PAIRS — the discovery of as many pairs of words as

possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound for

another, commutation.

METHOD OF DISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS - this method enables to prove whether

the phonetic difference is relevant or not.

METHODS OF PHONETIC ANALYSIS — different methods used in the study and

investigation of different phonetic phenomena.

MINIMAL PAIR — a pair the distinctive differences between the members of which are

based upon one distinctive difference. The pair pill— bill is minimal, because its

members are differentiated due to /p — b/ phonemes, their fortis /p/ — lenis /b/

distinctions.

MONOPHTHONG — a vowel sound in the articulation of which the articulating organs

are more or less stable, which results in the stationary nature of the vowel.

MONOSYLLABLE — a word consisting of one syllable.

MOUTH — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and the palate with

the uvula.

MOUTH CAVITY — the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.

MULPIPLY OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along many lines i.e.

they have many distinctively relevant features.

MUSICAL STRESS - special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly

through the change of pitch, or musical tone. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean

and other oriental languages.

N

NARROW TRANSCRIPTION — the system of transcription signs into which additional symbols are included which correspond to allophones of some phonemes.

NASAL CAVITY— immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx. It is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw within teethridge and the palate.

NASAL SONANTS — they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. Nasal sonants are /m, n/.

NASAL TWANG is characteristic of American pronunciation and results from the laxness of the soft palate which does not cover the nasal cavity completely and the air escapes partly through the narrowing formed.

NASAL VOWELS — vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both through the mouth and the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels exist in the French language. NASALIZATION — nasal twang.

NON-DISTINCTIVE, irrelevant or redundant features are those articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning.

NON-LABIALIZED VOWELS — vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not rounded.

NUCLEAR TONE — the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-falling, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.

NUCLEUS OF A DIPHTHONG — that part of the diphthong, which is more prominent, that is the stressed element of a diphthong (which is always the first one in English)

0

OBSTRUCTION — in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).

OCCLUSIVE — in making occlusive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction.

OCCLUSIVE SONANTS - in making occlusive sonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction: the air passage through the mouth is blocked, the soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nasal cavity.

OFF-GLIDE STAGE - the third stage when the organs of speech return to their neutral position i.e. to the position of rest.

ON-GLIDE STAGE - the first stage when the articulatory organs of speech leave the neutral position necessary for pronunciation of a given sound.

OPPOSITION — comparison of sounds along the lines of their qualitative and quantitative characteristics which results in singling out their minimal distinctive features, that are phonologically relevant or irrelevant. The opposition can be single, double or multiple.

ORGANS OF SPEECH – the organs that together with biological functions, such as breathing, feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to carry out intercommunication through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms: the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor.

P

PALATALIZATION — softening of consonants, which results from the secondary place of articulation — front-secondary focus. It takes place when the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate and the air passage is narrowed or constricted, which gives the consonant soft colouring.

PALATE — the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity. In articulatory phonetics it is divided into the hard palate, the soft palate with the uvula and the teeth ridge.

PARTIAL ASSIMILATION - assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds acquires some articulatory or acoustic likeness to that other.

PAUSE — a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are non-obligatory between sense-groups and obligatory between sentences.

PENULTIMATE — the last but one syllable.

PHARYNGAL CONSONANTS - are the consonants which are produced in the pharynx.

PHARYNX — the cavity between the mouth and the esophagus communicating with the nasal passages and ears.

PHONEME — is the smallest language unit that exists in speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical from of the same word. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone of some phoneme.

PHONETIC SYSTEM - is a systemic combination of five components of the language, i.e. the system of segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic

component, the accentual component, intonation.

PHONETICS — is a branch of linguistics which studies speech sounds (phonemes),

word-stress and intonation. Phonetics studies the articulation and acoustic qualities of

speech sounds, the physical characteristics and sound perception of stress and intonation,

the lexical and grammatical role of phonemes, word-stress and intonation.

PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS of a language is the process of the identification of the

phonemes and finding out patterns of relationship into which they fell as the sound

system of that language. The first step is to determine the minimum recurrent segments

(segmentation of speech continuum). The next step in the procedure is arranging sounds

into functionally similar groups. There are two most widely used methods to define

whether sounds are contrastive or merely allophones. They are the distributional method

and the semantic method.

PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION — a pair of words in which any one phoneme is

usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or

subminimal pair, e.g. /t — d/, /k — g/ in ten — den, coat — goat.

PHONOLOGY — the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences and

investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation that is as

units serving for the purpose of communication.

PHONOSTYLISTTCS is the branch of linguistics which studies phonetic phenomena

from the stylistic point. It deals with the main phonetic peculiarities of existing

intonation styles, which are displayed in a variety of text generated in everyday

communication of a modern man. Phonostylistics studies the way phonetic means are

used in this or that particular situation which exercises the conditioning influence of a set

of factors which are referred to as extralinguistic. The aim of phonostylistics is to

analyze all possible kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of identifying the

phonetic features, both segmental and suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain

kinds of contexts, to explain why such features have been used and to classify them into

categories based upon a view of their function.

PHONOTACTICS studies patterns of combinability of speech sounds and frequency of their occurrence. The knowledge of phonotactics possibilities also shows us how this

system works, where we have opportunities or taboos.

PHYSIOLOGICAL STAGE - it is the stage when the message formed within the brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that the human brain controls the behavior of the articulating organs which effects producing a particular pattern of speech sounds.

PHYSICAL OR ACOUSTIC STAGE - it is the stage when the movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves.

PITCH — the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note.

V. A. Vassilyev defines it as "perception of the frequency of repeated pressures on the ear-drum".

PLACE OF ARTICULATION — the place, where a complete or incomplete obstruction is formed in the articulation of consonants.

PLOSION — an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.

PLOSIVE CONSONANTS — in pronouncing plosives the articulating organs form a

complete obstruction which is suddenly broken by the pressure of the air exhaled from

the lungs and a kind of "explosion" called plosion, is heard.

Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, n/.

POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES — variants of a phoneme which are used in definite

positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark /l/and light /l/.

PRIMARY STRESS — the stress which is the strongest compared with the other

stresses used in a word.

PRINCIPAL ALLOPHONE — that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.

PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION — the process when the first of the two neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself.

PROSODIC FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE— they are: speech melody, the pitch (fundamental frequency), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber, they constitute intonation in the broad sense — prosodation or prosodization.

PROTRUDE — to move forward. In phonetics this term is connected with the protrusion

of the lips.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE - is the stage when the formation of the concept takes

place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker.

Q

QUALITATIVE STRESS —is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress.

QUANTITATIVE STRESS— special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones.

R

RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION — the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood one in England and in English speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most countries where English is taught as a foreign language. RECEPTION - is the stage when sound waves are received by the listener's hearing apparatus

RECESSIVE STRESS — stress that falls on the first syllable or the root of the word if it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its meaning e.g.: 'import, be’fore.

RECESSIVE TENDENCY — the tendency which consists in gradual shifting of word accent to the first syllable (which is usually the foot of the word).

REDUCE — to make smaller or less. For example, to reduce the intensity of a sound, to

reduce the quantity of a sound.

REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION — the process when the second of the neighbouring

sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself

RETENTION STAGE - the second stage when the organs of speech are kept for some

time in the position necessary in the production of a sound(non-complex) or move from

one position to another(within a complex sound, for example: a diphthongoind, a

diphthong, an affricate.

RETENTIVE TENDENCY — this tendency is characterized by the retention of accent

in the derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word

RHYME — the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound combinations or

words.

RHYTHM —"rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterized by basically

regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite

or different elements or features" (Webster's New World Dictionary). Rhythm in speech

is the periodic recurrence of stressed syllables. Rhythm exists both in prose and in

poetry. It can be regarded as one of the forms in which a language exists.

RHYTHMIC STRESS— the term refers to the cases when there are equal number of

unstressed syllables between two beats.

RHYTHMIC TENDENCY — the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables

This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress, especially in four-syllable

words of foreign origin.

ROLLED CONSONANTS — such consonants are pronounced when the tip of the

tongue (or the uvula) vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the

flow of the air is momentarily obstructed by the vibrating organ (or organs).

S

SCALE — the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic whole. SCALE OF SONORITY — the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree of loudness. According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless consonants are characterized by minimal sonority.

SEMANTIC METHOD consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one phoneme. For example, if we replace [b] by [t] in the word ban we produce a new word tan, ban — tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are termed "minimal pair".

SEMANTIC TENDENCY — according to this type of tendency words with separable prefixes and compound words have two equally strong stresses, eg 'un'known, 'eye "witness.

SENTENCE STRESS — the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in a sentence. These words are usually nouns, adjectives, notional verbs and adverbs, interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions. Articles, particles to and there, auxiliary, modal, and connective verbs, personal, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable prepositions, conjunctions and conjunctive words — are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.

SHORT VOWELS - the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in comparison with the long vowels (other conditions remaining the same).

SINGLE OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along one line, i.e. they have only one distinctively relevant feature.

SPEECH SOUND — a material unit, produced by speech organs. It is very concrete. A sound only becomes a speech one if it has a certain set of basic characteristic features that make this sound identifiable and recognizable in a speech flow despite various changes which it can undergo under the influence of its neighbors A speech sound can be viewed from the articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.

STABILITY OF ARTICULATION is the state when the shape, volume and orifice-size of the mouth resonator are stable According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.

STRESS or ACCENT is a greater degree of prominence which is effected mainly by pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch or with a change of pitch direction in it, (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension. The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase in the length of the sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables are not reduced. STYLE - the principles of this selection and arrangement, the ways of combining the elements form what is called "the style".

SUBSIDIARY MEMBERS (allophones) — variants of phonemes that appear under the influence of the neighbouring phonemes with which they are in complementary distribution. They are subdivided into 1 combinatory and 2 positional.

SUBSTITUTION METHOD — the method of replacing of one speech sound by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair, eg pen, fen, den. SYLLABIC — capable of forming a syllable.

SYLLABIC SOUNDS - sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are vowels and sonants other than /j, w/.

SYLLABLE - shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material carriers of words. They constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized subdivision of a word. SYLLABLE DIVISION- division of the word into "arcs of articulatory effort" (N.I. Zhinkin's theory). A strong end consonant begins the arc of loudness and a weak end consonant terminates it. Compare day-aid, in the first word /d/ constitutes the beginning of the arc of loudness, or the beginning or a syllable, it is progressively voiced. In the second word /d/ constitutes the end of the arc of loudness or the end of the syllable, it is progressively devoiced.

T

TAIL — unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow the nucleus of the intonation group.

TAMBER — the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are present

and their respective amplitudes.

TEMPO OF SPEECH — the rate of utterance.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT OF INTONATION — it consists of pauses, duration,

rhythm.

TENSE VOWELS - vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the

tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is greater than in the articulation of

lax vowels.

TERMINAL TONE — a change of pitch at the junction of two sense groups. The

American descriptivists use the term "clause terminal".

TONGUE — the most important and movable articulatory organ.

TONOGRAM — graphic representation of intonation.

ITRANSCRPTION — the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized.

Transcription represents sounding speech. A phonemic, or linguistically broad,

transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per phoneme". The symbols of

phonemic transcription are placed between slanting lines / /.

An allophonic or linguistically narrow transcription is based on the principle "one

symbol per allophone" The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually placed

between square brackets [ ]. In language teaching a phonemic transcription is more

convenient. An allophonic transcription is indispensable to scientific phonetic work.

TRANSMISSION - is the stage when the spoken message is transmitted through the

nervous system to the brain of the listener.

U

UNACCENTED —unstressed.

UNROUNDED VOWELS — vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not

rounded.

UTTERANCE — vocal expression of some idea.

UVULA a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate-over the back of the

tongue.

V

VARIANTS FREE — two different allophones of a phoneme pronounced in identical positions by one and the same or different speakers.

VARIATIONS STYLISTIC — variations in the pronunciation of speech sounds, words and sentences peculiar to different styles of speech.

VELUM — the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of the mouth cavity, when the soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed through the nasal cavity. VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL CORDS — "... when the glottis is narrowed so that the tensed vocal cords approach each other or touch lightly, these may be set in vibratory motion by the outgoing, breath pressure and brought together again by their own elasticity and by muscular tension" (V A Vassilyev).

VOCAL BANDS — elastic folds of membrane inside the larynx which vibrate to produce voice.

VOICE vocal tone produced by the regular vibrations of the vocal cords.

VOICED CONSONANTS — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords

brought together and vibrating.

VOICELESS CONSONANTS — the consonants which are produced with the vocal

cords taken apart and not vibrating.

VOWEL — a sound which is formed without making any obstruction- As a rule,

vowels are syllabic.

W

WORD DISTINCTIVE ACCENTEME - the term which is used to denote a

suprasegmental phonological unit which serves to distinguish the meaning of different

words.

WORD STRESS or WORD ACCENT — every disyllabic and polysyllabic word

pronounced in isolation has word stress. It is a singling out of one or more of its syllables

by giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared with the other syllable or

syllables in the same word.

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ АРК КРЫМ

РВУЗ «КРЫМСКИЙ ГУМАНИТАРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ РАБОТЫ

ТЕСТОВЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

ПО КУРСУ ФОНОЛОГИИ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ АРК КРЫМ

РВУЗ «КРЫМСКИЙ ГУМАНИТАРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

КОМПЛЕКСНАЯ КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

ПО ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ ФОНЕТИКЕ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ АРК КРЫМ

РВУЗ «КРЫМСКИЙ ГУМАНИТАРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

ДЛЯ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ РАБОТ

ПО ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ ФОНЕТИКЕ

ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ЗАОЧНОЙ ФОРМЫ ОБУЧЕНИЯ

TEST 1.

1. Task 1. Divide the following passage into word groups:

I have needed for some new bookshelves for a long time. So during my holiday I decided to tackle the job myself. Not that I am very clever with my hands but it didn’t seem too difficult and as I had already said that we could not afford to go away I thought it would be prudent not to spend money having it done professionally. I bought the wood at the local handicraft shop and I had plenty of screws, but I found that my old saw, which had been left behind by the previous owner of the house, was not good enough and I decided to buy a new one. That was my first mistake, my second was to go to the biggest ironmonger in London and ask for a saw. You would think it was simple, wouldn’t you, to buy a saw. But it is not. I said to the man behind the counter, “I want a saw”. He was a nice man and did his best for me. “Yes, sir, what kind of saw?” ”Oh, a saw for cutting wood” “Yes, sir, but we have fifteen different kinds for different jobs. What did you want it for?” I explained about my bookshelves and felt like an ignorant fool in a world of experts, which was true. He saw that I was a novice and was very kind. He told me what I should need and advised me to have a ladies’ size. “Easier to manage for their beginner, sir”. He was not being nasty just helpful and I was grateful to him. He also sold me a book on woodwork for schoolboys and I’ve been reading it with great interest. The next time I am on holiday I shall start on the shelves.

2. Task 2. Each of the following examples contains one or more of the words which often have weak forms. Transcribe the examples phonetically, showing the stressed syllables and the weak (or strong!) forms of those words:

They came to the door. There were two of them.

What are you surprised at? She is as old as the hills.

She has an uncle and a cousin. I shall be angry.

Who will meet him at the airport? I will.

What is her phone number? What does that matter?

I would like some tea. Well, make some.

What has John come for? For his saw that you borrowed.

What can I do? More that I can

He was pleased, wasn’t he? Of course, he was.

When I an going to get it? I am not sure.

I have taken it from the shelf. Yes, I thought you had.

They had already read it. But so had I.

3. Task 3. Mark the words in the passage in Task 1 which should have a weak form.

4. Task 4. Use the following lengthening word groups for practicing fluency:

I don’t know how long I need to wait for John to come home.

It was near the end of the week before I arrived back from Scotland.

Who was that awful woman you talked to all evening at the party?

I can’t understand how you did it so quickly and efficiently,

Mr. Southwood.

When did you hear that story about John and the girl next door?

Come and have dinner with us on Thursday the twenty-third of

this month.

5. Task 5. Use the following for practice in smoothness with initial vowels:

I was better off on my own.

Don’t argue with anyone as old as I am.

How awful it is to be ill when everyone else is all right.

The hungrier I am, the more I eat.

Is there any flaw in my argument, Oscar?

Have you ever asked Ann about Arthur and Amy?

I owe everything I am to my uncle and aunt.

Come over to our house for an evening.

I haven’t set eyes on Alec for ages and ages.

I ended up owing eighty-eight ponds.

You always ought to earn an honest living.

6. Task 6. Arrange each word group in the passage in Task 1 into one or more rhythm units showing the stressed syllable and the unstressed syllables attached to it.

7. Task 7. Which words in the passage might show alterations or

disappearances in sounds?

8. Task 8. Transcribe the whole passage phonetically showing word groups, stressed syllables, rhythm groups and weak forms of words; then compare it with the version on p.135 and notice any differences. Practise each word group aloud, concentrating on smoothness and rhythm.

TEST 2.

1. Task 1. Transcribe the following conversation phonetically; divide it into word groups and rhythm units and then underline the important words:

Can you recommend somewhere for a holiday?

What an odd coincidence! I was just going to tell you about our holiday!

Really? Where did you go? The South of France again?

No, this time we were to Ireland!

Oh, you went to Ireland, did you? You were thinking about it the last time we met.

Oh, yes, I mentioned it to you, didn’t I?

You were thinking of Belfast, weren’t you?

Dublin. But we didn’t go there in the end.

Didn’t you? Where did you go?

Where? To Galway.

That’s on the West coast, isn’t it? Was the weather good?

Reasonably good.

Tell me about the prices there, would you?

They weren’t too bad. You should go there and try it. But you ought to go soon. Summer’s nearly over!

It isn’t over yet. But thank you very much for your advice.

Good luck. Have a good time.

Thank you. Goodbuy.

2.Task 2. Study the rules for using the tunes and then rearrange them so that all the rules concerning the Glide-Down are brought together; and similarly with those concerning the Glide-Up, the Take-Off and the Dive.

3. Task 3. Using the rules, mark the intonation of each word group in the conversation 1. After you have finished the whole conversation check your marking carefully and notice any difference. Then practices saying each part of it separately until you are satisfied that it is correct, and finally put the parts together so that you can say the whole thing fluently, rhythmically, and with English sounds and intonation.