Учебное пособие 1669
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cation, and is aimed at creating a positive atmosphere in the process of learning a foreign language helps to enhance the confidence of students in the production of foreign speech and included in it paralinguistic and extralinguistic elements. The results of the study fill the gap in theoretical studies of linguistic and cultural features of corporate culture of English speakers from the functional perspective point of view. The research allowed to demonstrate traditional and new trends in the study of speech behavior stereotypes in the English-speaking corporate space, to consider the features of corporate communication as one of the key components of the professional competence of future specialists of economic specialties, as well as to attract specific linguistic material demonstrating atypical verbal patterns, stereotypes of speech behavior and etiquette norms of modern corporate communication that ensure successful business communication within linguistic and cultural communities.
References
[1]Azimov G.E., SHCHukin A.N. Novyj slovar' metodicheskih terminov i ponyatij (teoriya i praktika obucheniya yazykam). M.: Izdatel'stvo IKAR, 2009
[2]Rasmussen E. “The role of language skills in corporate communication” Corporate
Communications An International Journal 9(3), 2004
[3]Malyuga E., Orlova S. The art of business interviewing in ESP training // EDULEARN16 Proceedings. – 2016. – Barcelona: IATED. - pp. 7231-7235. doi: 10.21125/edulearn.2016.0574
[4]Grashchenkov A.S. Faktory, opredelyayushchie derivacionnuyu sochetaemost' anglijskih glagolov i sushchestvitel'nyh v pod"yazyke delovogo obshcheniya : dissertaciya ...
kandidata filologicheskih nauk : 10.02.04 / Grashchenkov Aleksandr Sergeevich; [Mesto zashchity: Smol. gos. un-t]. - Smolensk, 2012.
[5]Malyuga E.N., Tomalin B. Speech behaviour in business communication: a linguacultural perspective // 4th international multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences and arts SGEM 2017. Bulgaria. Science & society. Conference proceedings. Volume II. Psychology and psychiatry. Language & linguistics. 2017. Pp. 961 – 968.
[6]Malyuga E.N., Krouglov A, & Tomalin B. (2018). Linguo-cultural competence as a cornerstoneof translators’ performance in the domain of intercultural business communication.
XLinguae. A European Scientific Language Journal, issue no. 2, pp. 566-582.
[7]Interaction of professional jargon and linguistic identity // SOCIAL SCIENCES & ARTS SGEM 2018 Sonference proceedings. Volume 5. Science & society. Issue 3.1. Language and linguistics. Health policy services. SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on SOCIAL SCIENCES and ARTS. 2018. Austria. Pp. 231 - 239.
[8]Shamsan R., Otieno M. Effects of Strategic Public Relations on Organization Performance: A Case Study of Kenya Red Cross Society, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 5, Issue 9, September 2015
[9]Loshchilin F.N. YAzyk, soznanie i myshlenie / A.N. Loshchilin // Vestnik Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Lingvisticheskogo Universiteta. - 2014. - № 697.- S. 50-60.
[10]Malyuga E.N. Novye tendencii angloyazychnogo nauchnogo diskursa: voprosy aktual'nosti issledovaniya i yazykovoj identichnosti / E.N. Malyuga // Vestnik tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Filologiya. – 2019. – №58. – S. 52-70.
[11]Malyuga E., Maksimova D., Ivanova M. Cognitive and discoursive features of speech etiquette in corporate communication / E. Malyuga, D. Maksimova, M. Ivanova // International Journal of English Linguistics. – 2019. – № 9 (3). P. 310-318.
[12]Ovcharova M.V. Paralleli mezhdu iskusstvennymi yazykami i yazykami programmirovaniya / M.V. Ovcharova, S.A. Haustova Mat. IV Mezhdun. Konf. «Filologicheskie nauki v Rossii i zarubezhom, 2016. - S. 43 - 45.
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THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION
UDC 801.3=802.0
LEXICAL AND GRAMMAR SINGULARITIES IN TRANSLATION OF BUSINESS
CORRESPONDENCE FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN
О.S. Beletskaya, V.V. Kucheryavenko
____________________________________________________________________________
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Lecturer at Foreign Languages Department of Faculty of Economy
Olga S. Beletskaya
e-mail: olbel1980@mail.ru
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Lecturer at Foreign Languages Department of Faculty of Economy
Valentina V. Kucheryavenko e-mail: valentina-ru@yandex.ru
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Statement of the problem. This article looks into the lexical and grammar singularities of business documents, specifically business correspondence. Various structures, cliches and terms are analysed which demand attention when translating from English into Russian.
Results. Inherent compositional and stylistic elements, as well as the characteristic features of business correspondence as a type of business discourse, are outlined. The authors identify the grammar specifics of business documents and examine the various collocation categories. Examples of business lexis are provided with the special focus on translation of terms and abbreviations.
Conclusion. When translating the vocabulary of business letters translation equivalents are a common resort. Where lexical items have no equivalents, loanwords, calques, lexical substitutes and analogues are used.
Key words: business discourse, business correspondence, collocations, clichés, translation equivalents, loanwords.
For citation: Beletskaya О.S., Kucheryavenko V.V. Lexical and grammar singularities in translation of business correspondence from English into Russian / О.S. Beletskaya, V.V. Kucheryavenko // Scientific Journal “Modern
Linguistic and Methodical-and-didactic Researches”. – 2019. - № 4 (27). – P. 95-103.
Introduction
Business correspondence is a staple of business communication, indispensable in the day- to-day business operations. English being a global language contributes to the steady growth of international business contacts with translators often finding themselves tasked with rendering business letters from Russian into English and vice versa. In this domain, what matters is not just the right choice of lexical equivalents but the reflection of the specific nature of the crosscultural interaction among representatives of different nations, as well as the focus on the pragmatic efficiency, adequate structuring of an full text, etc. [1; 2]. Experts in cross-cultural business communication admit that “language is being interpreted as an integral sociocultural entity reflecting the features of a certain ethnic group as a carrier of a specific culture, and outlining this culture as a distinctive heritage different from other civilizations” [3].
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© Beletskaya О.S., Kucheryavenko V.V., 2019
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The language basis for the interaction of the business relations actors is the official business style, a functional style used in business context.This domain encompasses various types of documents and correspondence of legal, cultural and other nature, both national and international ones [4].
Methodology of the research
The object of research in the present paper is business correspondence of various types, while the subject is the translation of official business documents.
The study and analysis of business correspondence is carried out based on business letters, as well as papers by Russian and foreign authors.
Research methods are the general research method, as well as specific research methods: the descriptive, comparative and contrastive methods.
Results of the research
The following distinct features are inherent in the official business style: standardization, the use of terminology (e.g. bad debt, blue chip); nominalisation expressed in the frequent use of nouns and denominative prepositions and conjunctions: abbreviations (e.g. C.W.O. (cash with order), B/L (bill of lading), L/C (letter of credit), W.P.S. (with particular average), C.O.D. (Cash on delivery)), compression and compactness of the organisation of the content, the lack of emotional-expressive verbal means. The syntactic structure is characterized by the use of simple sentences, abundant conditional sentences and passive structures.
One of the types of official business documents is business correspondence which embraces letters of information, letters of offer, letters of demand, letters of claim, promotional materials, letters of employees, letters of inquiry about job opportunities, cover letters, as well as personal and public letters.
Speaking of compositional singularities of business discourse, we should mention its highly structural organisation and the presence of distinct parts, each of which has its own pragmatic function. Thus, the functions of the first (introductory) part are to establish contact and convey information; it may contain references to previous contacts between the communicators, as well as the reason for writing the present letter: As a follow-up to my previous note/ your call…/Per my call with John on June 18, I was referred to you, Charles, by my colleague Mary…/With regard to your inquiry…
The sentence introducing the gist of the matter is often followed by a sentence leading up to the message of the main part: I am writing to request your team’s assistance, please, for a similar letter to support the application…The introductory part normally consists of one paragraph, sometimes even one sentence.
The main part extensively describes various aspects of the matter in question. Although the number of paragraphs is not limited, most business letters are marked by concision and succinctness. The sentences within each paragraph are united under one idea. The number of aspects on the author’s agenda makes a considerable impact on the composition of the main part of business letters; in a multi-aspect business letter parenthetical words are used for maintaining the logic and coherence: Last but not least… / Consequently, therefore… / Incidentally, a propos… /
The conclusion, as well as the introduction, consists of one paragraph which includes the following sentences: 1) the sentence summarizing the author’s statements from the main part of the letter; 2) a sentence containing a request, an instruction or a demand (depending on the letter’s subject-matter), as well as the precise or approximate timeframe of its fulfillment: I would appreciate your acting promptly on that…/ Could your team please send a brief letter to the
Consulate in requesting that they give this application and interview their full attention? 3) a sentence giving an indication of the nature of the author’s expectations and designating the date
(and possibly the time) for the next contact between the parties: I look forward to reading/ hearing from you again next week…; 4) a sentence containing expressions of politeness (thanking the addressee for the time spent reading this letter/ considering the issue: Thank you again 96
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for your time and consideration; the expression of willingness to answer any questions pertaining to the subject-matter of communication: Please do not hesitate to contact me/ Should you have any questions/ queries, feel free to contact me by email or phone.
This compositional structure renders the text of a business letter consistent and logical, enabling to achieve the communication goal in the fastest way possible.
Based on the above, we can state that business communication as a subtype of the official business style has: 1) a standard form of organisation and composition; 2) a clear objective; 3) target orientation; 4) a coherent structure determined by the goals of the letter’s author; 5) wellargumented statements; 6) stylistic and compositional consistency; 7) neutral tone; 8) accuracy, clarity and unambiguity; 9) brevity, compression and concision of phrases; 10) politeness of address.
Let us look into the stylistic, lexical and grammatical singularities of English-language business correspondence in more detail.
1. Style-forming basics of the official documents language
The official business documents have a special pragmatics involving direct communication and feedback, i.e. answering a business letter, effectuating an instruction, etc. Generally, the official business style has the connotation of obligation and duty. It may manifest itself in a number of ways, for instance by means of an indefinite verb form and infinitive patterns coupled with the modal verbs “must”, “is obligated to”, “should”, etc. Also, the obligatory tone may be expressed in present tense verb forms, e.g. Продавец передает товар в собствен-
ность Покупателя (The seller transfers the ownership of the goods to the Buyer.)
As obligation in the English language is expressed in infinitives and modal verbs, the word “передает” may be rendered into English as “shall transfer”.
If we study the examples of English-language business correspondence, we will see that the following phrases are typical for conveying obligation: delivery is required (доставка должна быть осуществлена), the goods should be delivered (товары должны быть до-
ставлены), we have to cancel (мы должны отменить), to be constructed to your specific requirements (должна быть сконструирована в соответствии с Вашими особыми тре-
бованиями), we shall pass your order (мы передаем Ваш заказ), we insist that you (мы настаиваем, чтобы Вы), must be avoided (следует избегать), I insist on an explanation (я
настаиваю на объяснении), I shall be required to pay (я должен оплатить). As seen in the above examples, obligation is expressed through such modal verbs as shall, should, have to, etc. and infinitive structures [5].
Apart from the duty connotation, modal verbs may also indicate a request by using the verbs “could”, “would”, “should”.
E.g..
Could you please send me a catalogue and price list of your products?
If that is the case, would you let me know where and when it is to be ….
Should you have any queries, please don’t hesitate to ask
It should be pointed out that the use of modal verbs is something that marks British letters apart from American ones. Such an expression as I would be grateful if you would…is encountered more frequently in British business letters.
Along with that, the requirements of unequivocality and precision should be singled out in this context as those typical of business correspondence, which determines the use of terminology (e.g. invoice, letter of recommendation). As for contracts and agreements, they often have the definitions of terms used in that document specified in the beginning for disambigua-
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tion. To convey the information to the participants of business communication clearly and unequivocally, the official business style employs such features as brevity and precision. For example:
We are a dealership chain specializing in personal computers. We were first established in Hong Kong in 1980.
We now have a steady clientele in both the business and educational sectors.
Brevity is particularly characteristic for utterances expressing time and quantity, e.g..: The goods shall be shipped per M.V. “Dong Feng”on November 10 and are due to arrive at Rotterdam in 140 days.
For the purposes of unequivocality, personal-demonstrative pronouns are not typical of the official business style, as their frequent use may contradict the requirements of clarity and precision. In this regard, we should point out the non-personal nature of the official business style. In most cases, the narrator is the company, rather than the writer of the document.
The nominal character of the official business style is closely connected to its precision and unequivocality, as the discourse often uses nouns, as well as denominative prepositions and conjunctions (especially complex ones), for instance, in spite of, in conformity with, etc. Also, the official business style extensively utilizes denominative nouns, such as execution (исполне-
ние), notification (оповещение), resolution (постановление) and others.
Business letters use non-terminological words which are used primarily in the “officialese”, such as above stated, duly, etc.
2. Lexical and grammatical singularities of English-Russian translation of business correspondence
Business correspondence is characterized by such a notion as standardization, i.e. the use of words “purchase” instead of “buy”, “commence” instead of “begin”, “inform” instead of “tell”, “require” instead of “want” or “need”, “state” instead of “say”, “sufficient” instead of “enough”, etc. Speaking about the grammatical singularities, we can point out the omission of some parts of speech for increased brevity inherent in business English:
a) omission of prepositions, articles and object. For example: Omission of preposition:
We have accepted your order for 1,000 cases (of) Toilet Soap.
With regard to your Order No.770, we can probably arrange (for) July shipment.
Omission of article:
We acknowledge (the) receipt of your letter of 10th May.
We received your letter of 20th April, (the) contents of which have been duly noted. We have checked the statement and found (the) same correct.
Omission of object:
Will you please quote (your lowest prices) for the following items..
b) the use of Present Perfect instead of Past Simple is also typical of Business English, for example:
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The shipment of 500 sets Color TV Receiver under S/C456 has been received. We find that twenty of them have been damaged. (Instead of “We found that twenty of them had been damaged”);
it can be noted that the present tense in business correspondence is often used not only to express an action in present tense (I am certain…, we are pleased ..), but also is related to the future action (I hope…, I look forward to … );
c) active voice is often used instead of passive voice. For example:
Our Teleprinter sells fast (instead of «Our Teleprinter is sold well»).
In business correspondence we can see examples of negative politeness strategies (Brown and Levinson Politeness theory), which is based on distancing and emphasizes avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of a face threatening act against the hearer is reduced. It can be achieved by means of indirect statements, passive voice among others [6]. In business correspondence, it can be achieved by using modal verbs: Could you send us the invoice?…. / Would you mind if I ….
Meanwhile, the positive politeness strategy is used to make the hearer feel good about themselves, their interests or possessions, and is most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other well. In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, the positive politeness strategy includes statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments. Some of the typical examples we can see in the business correspondence are as follows: Look/ looking forward to …., We hope …kindly+action verb….. , please + action verb.
Particular attention should be paid to the concept of collocations, which are abundant in business correspondence [7]. М. Benson classifies collocations as two main types - grammatical and lexical collocations. Grammatical collocations usually consist of a noun, an adjective or a verb plus a preposition, such as interested in, agree with and the pattern to + infinitive or that-clauses, while lexical collocations can be broken into seven patterns:
1.adjective + noun (tight schedule, best wishes, further information);
2.adjective + preposition (pleased with);
3.verb + noun (to place an order, to take action, terms of payment, trade discount );
4.noun +noun (catalogue and price list, delivery date);
5.verb + adverb (recommend strongly);
6.adverb + adjective (absolutely proud of );
7.phrasal verbs (look forward, make up, set up)
As mentioned above, business correspondence is characterized by its lexical and grammatical features, which, among other things, include terminology, the use of clichés, patterns, abbreviations, the use of simple extended sentences and passive voice. All these features of business documents require special attention when translating.
Business correspondence contains a huge amount of polysemic vocabulary, which is characterized by significant denotative attribution and conditionality. Occasional conformities should be used in translation, for example: public opinion – общественное мнение, public debt – государственный долг, public scandal – публичный скандал [3].
When translating business correspondence, translation equivalents in target language are to be used. According to V.N.Komissarov, if there is no equivalent vocabulary, the following occasional conformities should be used:
-loanwords (by this technique we understand using transcription of transliteration, for example, outsourcing – аутсорсинг, leasing – лизинг, etc),
-calques (reproducing the morphemic composition of the word or the components of a set phrase, for example, career ladder – карьерная лестница, cost-per-thousand – цена за тысячу),
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-lexical substitutes (are made to convey the meaning of a context-sensitive lexical unit using translation transformations),
-semantic analogues (using appropriate substitutes or semantic analogies, i.e. words with similar meaning which is extended to convey information),
-descriptions [8].
As regards terminology, technical terms are translated using translation conformities (for example, quotation – котировка), lexical substitutes (for example, line of business– вид эко-
номической деятельности), calques (for example, general rate - общая ставка) and loanwords (for example, distributor – дистрибьютор), description (for example, parent company
– company which owns control stock of some other company).
In order to translate abbreviations, the following methods should be taken into considera-
tion:
-when translated into Russian, abbreviations are deciphered and translated completely. At the first mention, the abbreviation may be transcribed in English, then translated into Russian. If there is a set abbreviation in Russian, it should be transcribed as given, while if there is no such abbreviation, it can be composed by the translator from the first letters of the translated abbreviation. If the abbreviation cannot be deciphered, it is left in English.
-when translated into English, the abbreviation can be composed from the first letters of the translation, which should be indicated in brackets at first mention.
-the abbreviations in the names of devices, mechanisms and stock articles are usually not deciphered and are left in the original spelling.
-abbreviated names of institutions and organizations are written without quotation marks with a capital letter. If it is impossible to decipher themб the abbreviation is left in English or given in Russian spelling in accordance with set traditions [9].
As official business style relates to the informative text type with its minimalistic discourse, emotional intensifiers are practically not used in business correspondence. Such expressions as we would be pleased (мы были бы рады), be so kind (будьте любезны), we are eager to proceed (мы рассчитываем продолжить), we should be grateful (мы будем благодарны), we would appreciate (мы были бы признательными), we regret (к
сожалению), I am delighted to tell (я рад сообщить), express interest in (проявляют заин-
тересованность), suffer a serious financial loss (нести серьезные финансовые потери), have lost their emotional intensifiers in business correspondence and became clichés. Especially, one can highlight such phrases as we are eager to proceed and suffer a serious financial loss, when lexical substitutes without emotional intensifiers are used (eager – рассчитывать, suffer – нести).
Also, impersonal style is an inherent characteristic of business correspondence. The pronoun “I” is mainly used in CVs (curriculum vitae), replies to letters about job opportunities sent by individuals. The pronoun “We” is mostly used in legal letters by companies.
Polysemic words are quite different in terms of translation, as the translator has to choose proper context-determined translation in the target language. For example, “Average” - сред-
ний, which is also a notion from insurance terminology ( авария, убытки причинённые судну); draft (can be a written order for money to be paid by a bank (чек), the depth of water needed for a boat to be able to float (осадка), the unfinished document (черновик)), holder
(owner of securities (держатель ценных бумаг), insurer (страхователь)).
Neologisms are often used in business correspondence. They are represented mostly by compound words. As business sector has always been developing quite impetuously, business English is constantly enriched with neologisms: “online publishing” (“онлайн публикации”), “cyber-marketing”(“кибер маркетинг”), “network marketing”(“сетевой маркетинг”), “value-added-service” (“дополнительные услуги”), etc. Special attention should be paid to neologisms from the highly specialized topics, such as:
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Financial term “fallen angel” – is not an angel «падший ангел», but a type of obligation/ stock that has fallen substantially from its all-time highs «высокодоходная облигация,
потерявшая уровень, приемлемый для инвесторов»;
“a going concern”- successful company (преуспевающее предприятие);
“advance surrender of export exchange”- предварительная сдача экспортной биржи
;
“acceptance house”- type of bank (акцептный банк);
“clearness sale” –overall sale ( тотальная распродажа);
“at a premium”- above the usual or nominal price (выше номинальной стоимости),
etc.
In business correspondence we can usually see the substitution of verbal forms with corresponding split forms: to make an appointment (назначить встречу), to make payments (осуществлять платежи), and also a big number of denominative prepositions and conjunctions: regarding (относительно), due to (благодаря), therefore (поэтому), in spite of (не смотря на), according to (согласно), following (после), in order to (для того чтобы), in conformity with (в соответствии с), in accordance with (согласно) [10].
When analyzing business correspondence style, a big number of conditional sentences can be noted. For example, a translation transformation plus addition have been used in the following sentence:
If you have not received payment by Thursday, 12 November, I would be grateful if you would contact me immediately. (Если Вы не получите оплату в четверг, 12 ноября, я был бы признателен, если Вы сразу же сообщите мне об этом).
Transformational translation is used in the following sentence:
Please do not hesitate to contact us if the enclosed leaflet information is relevant to your needs. (Пожалуйста, свяжитесь с нами, если информация вложенном проспекте соответствует Вашим потребностям).
When translating conditional sentences from English into Russian, approximate translation, transformational translation and grammatical conformities are usually used [11].
Special attention should be paid when the translator deals with gerund and infinitive pat-
terns.
Thank you for your letter enquiring about the company X. Ltd. (Спасибо за Ваше пись-
мо об уточнении информации о компании X. Ltd).
The gerund form enquiring is translated in this sentence as “об уточнении информации”, which means that grammatical substitution was applied.
This company has a number of most competent sales personnel covering the whole country and has performed most effectively for our company against our foreign competitors within the market. (Указанная компания имеет множество компетентных сотрудников по продажам по всей стране. Она сработала наиболее эффективно для нашей компании в отношении наших иностранных конкурентов на рынке).
For the translation of the sentence above, transformational translation was applied, and the gerund “covering” was substituted with the preposition “по”.
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MTN has over this period of time proven to be most prompt in their payment. (МТН за данный период показала себя как компания, оперативно осуществляющая платежи).
Transformational translation has been used in this sentence as the infinitive has been translated using the participle clause in Russian.
We would appreciate your comments on this, as we are keen to be better informed about these candidates. (Мы были бы благодарны, если бы Вы дали комментарии по этому поводу, поскольку мы заинтересованы в получении информации об этих кандидатах).
“To be better informed” in the above mentioned sentence was translated with the word combination “получении информации”, which means that transformational translation has been applied.
Normally passive patterns are translated by means of: а) transformation, for example:
We have been working with the company of Mr Smith for many years, but 2 weeks ago Mr Smith was detained by the police and due to this certain irregularities within the company have come to light. (Мы работали с компанией г-на Смита в течение многих лет, но, к две недели назад г-н Смит был задержан полицией из-за того, что стало известно о некоторых нарушениях компании).
Transformational translation was applied as there was grammatical substitution “certain irregularities have come to light” with the Russian passive pattern “стало известно”, and passive voice was translated using passive pattern.
b) grammatical conformities, for example:
Delivery is required by 21.11.2018, and the goods should be delivered to our warehouse in Oslo. (Поставку необходимо осуществить к 21.11.2018 и товары должны быть доставлены на наш склад в Осло).
Grammatical conformities and passive voice using passive patterns are used for translation into Russian.
c)zero translation;
d)approximate translation.
Conclusion
We can see that in most cases lexical substitution and translation conformities are used in the translation of business correspondence lexis with semantic analogues and calques being chosen to a lesser extent, whereas when translating grammatical patterns transformational translation is mainly used, while zero translation is practically not used.
Official style is the language basis for the interaction between business actors. Business correspondence with all its diversity serves as a means of the fastest and most accurate implementation of the business communication pragmatic function.
High-level compositional structure, distinct introductory and main parts, a conclusion with its own characteristics, are inherent in business style in general, and business correspondence in particular.
Among the style-forming and lexical-grammatical singularities of business correspondence, one can distinguish the notions of obligation and duty which are manifested in the frequent use of modal verbs and certain patterns; accuracy and unambiguity, which cause a highly
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terminological nature of business correspondence; orientation towards brevity, expressed in omissions and abbreviations; a high level of standardization and use of cliches, as well as nonfinite verb forms. Speaking about the peculiarities of business correspondence, special attention should be paid to the strategy of positive and negative politeness, which is manifested in the use of conditional sentences with modal patterns.
The main approach in translating business correspondence from English into Russian is to find the necessary type of conformity (substitution, calque, semantic analogue, etc.). This is especially the case for the translation of the so-called non-equivalent lexis. When translating gerundial and infinitive patterns, as well as passive voice, transformational translation is mainly used; when translating abbreviations we use conformities and/or deciphering, when translating neologisms - transcription / transliteration, calques or descriptions.
References
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