II Define by suffixes to what part of speech the following words belong:

preferably, natural, measurement, accumulation, normal, repetition, original, triangulation, instrumental, direction, especially, fraction, exactly, position, closely.

III. Find opposites from the text: back, lower, last, previous.

IV.Find in the text N+.N, A+N word combinations and translate them.

V, Find in the text constructions with gerund and translate them.

VI. Find in the text constructions with participle 1 and translate them.

.

VII.Find in the text constructions with participle II and translate them.

V1II. Find in the text verbal nouns and translate them.

IX. Comprehension questions:

1.What are usual methods of reading angles? 2. How is the instrument graduated for reading angles? 3. What is the disadvantage of the direct reading? 4. Is the azimuth method a rapid one? 5. When is the azimuth method used? 6. What is the azimuth method combined with? 7. Are angle readings checked in the azimuth method? 8. In what position is the telescope in the azimuth method? 9. In what method can instrumental errors be eliminated? 10. When is the repetition method used? II. How many repetitions are recommended?

X. Annotate the last two paragraphs.

XI. Speak about:

a) direct reading of horizantal angles,

b) reading by azimuth.

Тeхт B. Errors in base line measurements

І. Read and memorize the following words;

alone - лише, виключно, тільки

blow (v) - дути

carefully - дбайливо, уважно

duration - тривалість

effect (n) - вплив, дія

even though - навіть хоча

gradient - градієнт, ухил, схил

greatly - в значній мірі

handle (v) – обходитись

highway – шосе

hеnсе - звідси

introduce - ввести

length - довжина

nearly - майже

negligible - незначний

permit (v) - дозволити, допустити

precise - точний

railroad - залізна дорога

readily - легко

render - зробити

sag (n) - осідання, прогин, обвисання

season - сезон

similar - подібний

source - джерело

standardize - стандартизувати

sufficiently - достатньо

ехреriепсе - досвід

II. Expressions for the text comprehension:

adjacent posts - суміжвні, прилеглі пункти, вішки

approximate formula - наближена формула

as follows - наступним чином

base line - базис, базисна лінія

bureau of standards - бюро стандартів

changes in length - зміни в довжині

cloudy days - хмарні дні

difference in elevation - різниш у висоті

favourable conditions - сприятливі умови

field season - польовий сєзон

invar tape - інварна мірна лінія

lateral displacement - бокове переміщення

linear measurements - лінійні вшіри

mean temperature - середня температура

normal to – перпендикулярно

profile levels - профільні рівні

source of errors - джерело помилок

steeper grade - крутіший ухил

supporting surface - підтримуюча поверхня

tape length - довжина стрічки

throughout the length- по всій довжині

total probable error - загальна ймовірна помилка

unsupported portions - непідтримані частини

up to - до

variations in temperature - коливання температури

Errors in base line measurements

1. Tape Non-Standard Length. If the tape is саrefully handled the comparison made by the bureau of standards wIIl be suff'iciently precise to render the error from.this source negligible for the duration of a field season. Experience has shown that taре changes in length over period of years even though it is not used, hence, a tape should be standardized in the same season in which it is lied.

2. Variations in temperature. The effect of temperature is the most serious source of errors in precise linear measurements.

For example, an error of 0.5° F in the temperature of a steel tape introduces an error of 1/300,000 in the measured length, which alone is greater than the total probable error permitted in precise work. The magnitude of the error due to variations in temperature is greatly reduced by the use of an invar tape.

Favourabie conditions are those in which the air and the ground are at nearly the same temperature. These conditions are obtained on cloudy days or at night, and it is at such times that important base lines are usually measured.

3 Tape not horizontal. This .source of error is rendered negIigible as foIIows: the difference in elevation of adjacent posts is determined by a line of profile levels run with a transit or an engineer's level. The gradient for each tape length is then readily computed.

The corrections for grades up to 5 per cent may be computed by the approximate formula.

Steeper grades may be used if necessary, but the corrections should then be computed by the exact formula. The same correction is applied to measurements of base lines along highway or railroad, the grade of the supporting .surface being obtained by levelling.

4. Wind. If a strong wind is blowing normal to the base line and if the tape is not supported throughout its length there will be a lateral displacement of the unsupported portions of the tape, thus producing an effect similar to that of a sag.

A s s i g n m e n t s

I. Comprehension questions,:

1.Does the tape change over the period of time? 2. Who checks up tape standard? 3. What is the most serious source of errors in linear measurements? 4. How is the temperature error reduced? 5. What are favourable conditions for the tape? 6.When is the exact formula used for correction in grade? 7. When does the lateral displacement of tape occur?

2. Speak about;

a) the effect of non-standard tape length;

b) the effect of variations in temperature on tape measurements;

c) the corrections for grades in tape measurements;

d) the effect of wind on tape measurements.

Texts for additional reading

Distance

Distance joins location and direction as a commonly understood term that has duel meanings for geographers. Like its two companion spatial concepts, distance may be viewed in both absolute and relative sense. Absolute distance refers to the spatial separation between two points on the earth’s surface measured by some accepted standard unit such as miles or kilometres for widely separated locales, feet or metres for more closely spaced points. Relative distance transforms those linear measurements into other units more meaningful for the space relationship at question.

Most people think of time distance rather than linear distance in their daily activities; downtown is 20 minutes by bus, the library is a 5-minute walk. In some instances, money rather than time may be the distance transformation. An urban destination might be estimated to be a 5-dollar cab ride away.

A psychological transformation of linear distance is also frequent. The solitary late-night walk back to the car through an unfamiliar or dangerous neighbourhood seems far longer than a daytime stroll of the same distance through familiar and friendly territory.

Size and scale

When we say that a place may be large or small, we speak both of the nature of the place itself and of the generalizations that can be made about it. In either instance, geographers are concerned with scale.

We can, for example, study a problem – say, population, or agriculture – at the local scale, the regional scale, or on a global scale. Here the reference is purely to the size of unit studied. More technically, scale tells us the relationship between the size of an area on a map and the actual size of the mapped area on the surface of the earth. In this sense, scale is a feature of every map and essential to recognizing the areal meaning of what is shown on that map.

In both senses of the word, scale implies the degree of generalization represented. Geographic inquiry may be broad or narrow; it occurs at many different size scales.

Mapping Earth

Mapping is a logical and systematic way of tracking and recording processes of change on Earth. Cartography is the science of making small-scale models, or representations, of Earth’s features, called maps. Maps allow us to “see” what whole regions of Earth’s surface look like without having to visit them or even fly over them in an airplane. A map provides visual information about the size and structure of a region, from a distant view to extremely close detail.

Maps are used by people in many different ways. For example, hikers use park maps to plan their trips. Airline pilots use aeronautical maps to chart their courses. Astronomers use maps to identify and locate objects in space, and meteorologists use maps to study and predict patterns in the weather. Geologists use maps to study Earth’s surface features, as well as to study features below Earth’s surface. The maps people use are made by cartographers.

Today’s cartographers may use computers, but the humans began making maps even before paper was invented. Some of the first maps were etched onto pieces of clay in Babylonia (modern-day Iraq) nearly 4,500 years ago. Long before that, Stone Age drawings on the walls of caves may have been used as maps. Regardless of exactly when maps were first made, they have clearly been useful tools to represent Earth’s surface.

Ancient Egyptians made maps to show the changes caused by frequent flooding of the Nile river. In A.D. 150 Claudius Ptolemy, an astronomer and mapmaker living in Egypt, organized what was known about Earth’s surface. He is said to be the first person to collect maps and other facts about Earth’s surface and print the information into a set of books.

Mapmaking became more precise as explorers began to chart Earth. New methods of mapping, specialized tools, and mathematical mapping formulas were developed along with the ability to print, rather than recopy, maps. In the 20^th century map-making skills rapidly advanced following the invention of the airplane and the use of aerial photographs. By flying over an area mapmakers could see an overview of the surface they were mapping.

Since the 1950s computers have become increasingly important mapmaking tools. Computers that are programmed with the correct data and equipped with graphics software can quickly and accurately produce a map of some part of Earth’s surface. They can also be programmed to change existing maps to show how an area would look like if certain features, such as lakes and trees, were added or removed.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are associated with the boundaries of the plates that make up Earth’s top layer (the lithosphere) as well as with the so-called hot spots in the middle of plates. Most of Earth’s volcanoes are found along the “ring of fire” that circles the Pacific plate. Plates meet along this ring which causes tremendous tension or friction, as one plate moves beneath another. The rock melts and some of it moves upward as magma. As pressure mounts a volcanic eruption is the result. These eruptions can be explosions or quiet outpourings of lava. The lava solidifies as ash, volcanic glass and igneous rocks. Glasses occur when the lava cools so quickly that the atoms in the lava have no time to order themselves. Obsidian, for example, is one of these silicate mixtures called natural glass. If the lava had been allowed to cool more slowly, then granite may have been the result.

What are sedimentary rocks?

Sedimentary rocks form when loose materials are compacted and cemented by Earth’s processes. These materials include bits and pieces of minerals and other rocks and minerals from oceans and lakes. This process sounds simple but it can take millions of years for those collections of small particles or sediments to become rocks.

When rocks are changed by wind, water, ice, and gravity, particles – some small, some large – form sediment.

Sedimentary rock can be formed in bodies of water as well as in dry, desert-like conditions. In other case, sediment is formed from wind, water, the buildup of natural remains, or some kind of chemical reaction.

One way sedimentary rock is formed is from the buildup of shell fragments, corals and animal skeletons in sedimentary beds in the bottom of oceans, lakes and other waterways. Sometimes beds of sedimentary rock form from chemical solutions such as calcium carbonate or sodium chloride, trickling into lakes without outlets or into cutoff arms of the sea. The calcium carbonate or sodium chloride then hardens into sedimentary rocks. Regardless of the way the layers of sediment are deposited they all form into rock through the same process of nature – the layers of sediment are cemented or bonded together over long periods of time. The bonding agent is usually one of three common materials – calcite, silica or iron oxide. Calcite is found in water that percolates between the sediment beds.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from fragments of minerals plus other rocks, organic matter, or both. Most sedimentary rocks that contain fragments larger than two milimetres, as well as sand stones and shales are in the clastic category.

Some sedimentary rocks are formed from solutions. These rocks which include some limestones, rock gypsum and rock salt are nonclastic. Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to grain size. Thus, a sandstone can be composed of quartz, calcite, rock particles, feldspar or a combination of all of these. Shale can also be composed of these same things but the “things” are smaller in size.

Tectonic regionalization of the Carpathians

The criteria of a tectonis regionalization of the Carpathian Arc refer to historical geological development and to temporal differences in the consolidation, controlled by the main, or final, phases of folding.

According to distinct historical geological differences the whole Arc is divided into the Internal, or Central, Carpathians and the External, or Flysch, Carpathians. The Internal Carpathians is a province where not only the Miocene, but also the pre-Miocene folding took place. Some of its regions experienced several foldings only during the Alpine time. The External Carpathians is a province of solely Miocene folding. The latter took place here, at first, in more interior units, and then migrated towards the platform framing. The frontier between the two provinces is the Pieniny Klippen Zone which developed until Palaegene according to the Internal Carpathian type and after – according to the External one.

The differences between the two provinces are not only in the number and age of experienced foldings but also in their formational compositions. The External Carpathians appear to be a region of exclusively Flysch formation that has a considerable thickness (Cretaceous-Lower Miocene) and practically lacks igneous rocks. On the contrary, the Internal Carpathians are characterised by a variety of formations. The Marmarosch Crystalline Massif and the Marmorosch Klippen Zone located within the north-western continuation of the latter have a special position.

The above mentioned principles of the tectonic regionalization envisage delimitation of five main structural formational zones: the Internal Carpathians with the superimposed Miocene-Pliocene depressions playing the role of an interior molasse basins; the Pieniny Klippen Zone; the Marmorosch Belt; the Flysch Carpathians; and the Precarpathian Foredeep.

What are metamorphic rocks?

Rocks inside Earth’s crust are exposed to high temperature, pressures and solutions. These things can change rocks physically or chemically. Rocks changed by these forces are called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks can form from sedimentary, igneous, or even other metamorphic rocks. The term metamorphic comes from the Greek words meta and morphe which mean “to transform shape”.

Some metamorphic rocks are formed when sedimentary, igneous, or preexisting metamorphic rocks are subjected to extreme temperatures and pressures by a process called regional metamorphism. In other cases the rocks are transformed by contact from hot magma within Earth’s crust by a process called contact metamorphism.

Like igneous and sedimentary rocks metamorphic rocks may be coarse- or fine-grained. Metamorphic rocks are classified according to their lack or presence of banding. Foliated rocks have a wavy structure caused by the alignment of the minerals that make up the rock. Foliated rocks have a banded appearance and include schist, slate and gneiss. They are generally formed as a result of regional metamorphism. In nonfoliated rocks such as marble and quartzite there is no alignment of minerals. These rocks are generally formed via contact metamorphism.

Topographic maps

The topography, or lay of the land, shows many variations of the three general landforms – mountains, plains and plateaus. A topographic map is a two- dimensional modelling, or representation, of three-dimensional view – depth, breadth and height.

Contour lines are lines connecting points of equal elevation. The elevations on topographic maps are heights above or below sea level, known as zero elevation. Each line represents a change in elevation. The difference in elevation between two contour lines next to each other is the contour interval. Depressions, or negative elevations, are shown by hachures. Hachures are short lines that are placed at right angles to contour lines and that point toward the lower elevation

To determine actual distances from a map you must be able to read its scale and legend . A map scale compares distances on the map with distances on Earth. For example, 500 kilometers on Earth may be represented as 5 centimeters on a map. The legend explains each symbol used on a map.

. Complex analysis of geophysical investigation results

Necessity of expensive rock workings (pits, adits) for extensometers to be set up encourages searches for alternativemethods of the Earth’s crust stressed strained state variation monitoring.

As all rocks are somewhat fractured and tensosensitive the physical mechanical properties (elasticity, electrical conductance, heat conductance, permeability, strength etc.) and related geophysical fields are sensitive to the stressed-strained state variations the inner structure of rock massifs is also changed; this processis accompanied by radiation of elastic and electromagnetic waves (acoustic, seismic and electromagnetic emissions). Thus there exist physical prerequisites for studying geodynamic processes by geophysical methods which explains topicality and prospects for geophysical monitoring of modern geodynamic and seismotectonic processes. On the basis of a complex analysis of microseismic, extensometric, geothermic, geoaccoustic observation results the following conclusions may be drawn:

- temporal variations of all geophysical field characteristics studied are characterized by a complex oscillation behaviour;

- distinct connections between geophysical field characterostics registered are absent because of the influence of the factors neglected;

- time intervals of anomalous compression of the Earth’s crust rocks correspond to decrease periods of their temperature;

- rock compression is accompanied by growth of seismic emission (mean monthly values of total earthquake energy with epycentres located within the testing area);

- periods of speeding up seismic processes lag behind periods of rock compression approximately by 1-2 months which opens prospects for predicting the time of local seismicity anomalous increase;

- non-distinct connections between temporal variations of geophysical field characteristics demand specific mathematical analysis and an optimal set of geophysical regime observation techniques for the problem of predicting the time of local seismicity speeding up to be solved.

Measurements and deformation analysis at the banks of the Danube

For more than 30 years the banks of the Danube are under control in order to detect any deformation. These deformations might be due to a changing water balance of the Danube itself and the ground water next to it. Another important fact is the growing traffic in the urban area, mainly on several bridges and also the underground tunnel undergoing the Danube.

Starting in 1964 control measurements were made every second year using the conventional measuring technique like levelling, direction measurements with some old theodolite and distance measurements with subtense bar or tape to mark fixed or control points on the retaining walls next to the Danube. This is the main reason for today’s requirement of accuracy which can be achieved with modern instruments.

The control network covers the area starting at Margaret Island in the north all the way down to the train bridge on the south, on the Buda-side as well as on the Pest-side. The length of this network is approximately 4 km on each side.

Several results had already turned out from the last 30 years of measurements:

14. Whenever some local deformations were detected resulting from the water acting on the fixing of the walls it was reported to civil engineers and the corresponding section was repaired immediately.

15. Rather more important are the efects of the subway which is under the Danube. Here the deformation analysis detected a slight sinking of the whole area around the House of Parliament. This sinking, however, stopped 15 years ago and no further deformation was detectable since then.

16. Also some underground canalisation was causing different problems. It was possible to detect a constant shift in different places.

17. The retaining walls were discovered to be very stable during the last few years and some small movements were detected the explanation for which could be the changing water level.

Geoscience in the Netherlands