- •Theory of translation
- •Contents
- •Part I. General issues of translation chapter 1. What Is Translation? § 1. Translation studies
- •§ 2. Semiotic approach
- •§ 3. Communicative approach
- •§ 4. Dialectics of translation
- •Inseparability of form and meaning.10
- •4.Translation and culture are inseparable.
- •§ 5. Translation invariant
- •§ 6. Unit of translation
- •Chapter 2. Types of translation § 1. Classification criteria
- •§ 2. Machine translation
- •§ 3. Translation and interpreting
- •§ 4. Functional classification
- •Chapter 3. Evaluative classification of translation § 1. Adequate and equivalent translation
- •§ 2. Literal translation
- •§ 3. Free translation
- •§ 4. The concept of ‘untranslatability’
- •Chapter 4. Translation Equivalence § 1. Types of equivalence
- •Equivalence
- •§ 2. Pragmatic level
- •§ 3. Situational level
- •§ 4. Semantic paraphrase
- •§ 5. Transformational equivalence
- •§ 6. Lexical and grammatical equivalence
- •§ 7. The levels of equivalence hierarchy
- •Chapter 5. Ways of Achieving Equivalence § 1. Types of translation techniques
- •§ 2. Translation transcription
- •§ 3. Transliteration
- •§ 4. Cаlque translation
- •§ 5. Grammar transformations
- •§ 6. Lexical transformations
- •§ 7. Complex transformations
- •Chapter 6. Translation Models § 1. Translation process
- •§ 2. Situational model of translation
- •§ 3. Transformational model of translation
- •§ 4. Semantic model of translation
- •§ 5. Psycholinguistic model of translation
- •Notes to part I
- •Part III. Grammar problems of translation
- •Chapter 1. Formal differences between source text and target text
- •Chapter 2. Translating finite verb forms §1. Translating tense and aspect forms
- •§2. Translating passive voice forms
- •§3. Translating the subjunctive mood forms
- •Chapter 3. Translating non-finite verb forms §1. Translating the infinitive
- •§2. Translating the gerund
- •§3. Translating the participle
- •§4. Translating absolute constructions
- •Chapter 4. Translating causative constructions §1. Types of causative constructions
- •§2. Constructions with causal verbs
- •§3. Constructions with the verbs to have, to get
- •§4. Causative constructions with non-causal verbs
- •Chapter 5. Translating pronouns §1. Translating personal pronouns
- •§2. Translating possessive pronouns
- •§3. Translating relative pronouns
- •§4. Translating the pronoun one
- •§5. Translating the pronouns каждый / все
- •§6. Translating partitive pronouns some / any
- •§7. Translating demonstrative pronouns
- •Chapter 6. Translating the article
- •§1. Translating the indefinite article
- •§2. Translating the definite article
- •§3. Translating the zero article
- •Chapter 7. Translating attributive clusters §1. Features of the attributive phrase
- •§2. Translating the attributive cluster.
- •Chapter 8. Syntactic changes in translation §1. Communicative structure of the english and russian sentence
- •§2. Word order change due to the functional sentence perspective
- •§3. Sentence partitioning and integration
- •Chapter 9. Difference in english and russian punctuation §1. Principles of punctuation in english and russian
- •§2. Differences in comma usage
- •§3. Using the dash
- •§4. Using quotation marks
- •§5. Using the colon and semicolon
- •§6. Using the ellipses
- •§2. Interaction of word semantic structures
- •§3. Word connotation in translation
- •§4. Intralinguistic meaning
- •Chapter 2. Translating realia §1. Culture-bound and equivalent-lacking words
- •§2. Types of culture-bound words
- •§3. Ways of translating culture-bound words
- •§4. Translating people’s names
- •§5. Translating geographical terms
- •§6. Translating published editions
- •§7. Translating ergonyms
- •Chapter 3. Translating terms §1. Translation factors
- •§2. Translation technique
- •§3. Terms in fiction and magazines
- •Chapter 4. Translator’s false friends
- •Chapter 5. Phraseological and metaphorical translation §1. Metaphor and the phraseological unit
- •§2. Interlingual metaphoric transformations
- •§3. Ways of translating idioms
- •§4. Challenges in translating idioms
- •Chapter 6. Metonymical translation §1. Definitions
- •§2. Lexical metonymic transformation
- •§3. Predicate translation
- •§4. Syntactic metonymic transformations
- •Chapter 7. Antonymic translation §1. Definition
- •§2. Conversive transformation
- •§3. Shifting negative modality
- •§4. Reasons for antonymic translation
- •Chapter 8. Differences in russian and english word combinability §1. Reasons for differences in word combinability
- •§2. Translation of adverbial verbs
- •§3. Translating condensed synonyms
- •Chapter 9. Translating new coinages: differences in russian and english word building
- •§1. Compounds
- •§2. Conversion
- •§3. Affixation
- •§4. Abbreviation
- •Notes to part IV
- •Part V. Pragmatic problems of translation
- •Chapter 1. Translation pragmatics
- •§1. Concept of pragmatics
- •§2. Text pragmatics
- •§3. Author’s communicative intention
- •§4. Communicative effect upon the receptor
- •И молвил он: «в былое время
- •На голове стою.»
- •§5. Translator’s impact
- •Chapter 2. Speech functions and translation §1. Language and speech functions
- •§2. Interpersonal function and modality in translation.
- •§3. Expressive function in translation
- •§5. Conative function in translation
- •Chapter 3. Functional styles and translation §1. Functional style, register: definition
- •§2. Translating scientific and technical style
- •§3. Translating bureaucratic style
- •§4. Translating journalistic (publicistic) style
- •Chapter 4. Rendering stylistic devices in translation
- •§1. Translation of metaphors and similes
- •§2. Translation of epithets
- •§3. Translation of periphrase
- •§4. Translation of puns
- •“Bother! Said Pooh… “What’s that bit of paper doing?”
- •§5. Translation of allusions and quotations
- •Chapter 5. Translation norms and quality control of a translation §1. Norms of translation
- •§2. Quality control of the translation.
- •Chapter 6. Translation etiquette §1. Professional ethics, etiquette, and protocol
- •§2. Code of professional conduct
- •§3. Protocol ceremonies
- •Notes to part V appendix 1. Russian-English Transliteration Chart
- •Appendix 2. Russian-English-Chinese Transliteration Chart
- •Учебное издание Зоя Григорьевна Прошина теория перевода
- •Part II. History of translation Chapter 1. Western traditions of translation § 1. Translation during antiquity
- •§ 2. Translation in the middle ages
- •§ 3. Renaissance translation
- •§ 4. Enlightenment translation (17-18th c.)
- •§ 5. Translation in the 19th century
- •§ 6. Translation in the 20th century
- •Chapter 2. History of russian translation § 1. Old russian culture and translation
- •§2. Translation in the 18th century
- •§ 3. Russian translation in the first half of the 19th century
- •§4. Translation in the second half of the 19th century
- •§5. Translation at the turn of the century
- •§6. Translation in the 20th century
- •Notes to part 2
§4. Causative constructions with non-causal verbs
In these constructions, the third element is expressed by a prepositional phrase: Try to talk them into a game of tennis on Friday. – Постарайся уговорить их сыграть в пятницу в теннис. How did you talk the manager out of complaining? – Как ты отговорил менеджера от жалобы? The verbs introducing the constructions of this type are called adverbial verbs (see below).
These constructions depend upon the context even more than the previously described type. To translate them, a contextual substitution (and sometimes extension) is required: She sang her baby to sleep every night. – Каждый вечер она песней усыпляла ребенка.
Chapter 5. Translating pronouns §1. Translating personal pronouns
One of the most difficult problems is translating pronouns of the second person. The modern English you corresponds to the Russian ты and вы, though Russian ты also corresponds to the English archaic thou, now used only in poetry. To select a proper equivalent to the English you, a translator should clearly understand the function of this pronoun in the sentence. The Russian ты and вы differ in their social status, ты indicating a person of lower status. For example, “The American Tragedy” by T. Dreiser has an episode describing Clyde’s transfer from one prison to another. “And girls and women …[were] calling to him gaily and loudly as the train moved out from one station to another: ‘Hello, Clyde! Hope to see you again soon. Don’t stay too long there.’” This episode has been translated the following way: «И бывало, что какая-нибудь женщина или девушка ,,, громко и весело кричала вслед отходящему поезду: “Хэлло, Клайд! Мы еще увидимся. Смотрите, не задерживайтесь там”.» Evidently, it is unnatural that passersby address a prisoner using the polite вы.
Sometimes the meaning of ты as an indicator of a person’s low social status can be derogatory. In Russian-to-English translation it can be compensated by expressive means. For instance, Да вечно ли ты мне дорогу перебегать будешь? – Damn it… you’re not always going to stand in my way, are you? The English sentence expresses irritation and manifests the addressee’s low social position, as it begins with a very emphatic interjection and ends in a tag-question.
Another function of the Russian ты is to demonstrate friendly or intimate relations between the speakers: Я ведь думала, что ты там… у дяди! – You see, darling, I thought you were at your uncle’s. As you see, again compensation is of great help here.
In some cases explicatory translation can be used to render the meaning of the Russian ты: Они говорили друг другу ты. – They spoke to each other like two old friends.
A translator should be familiar with ethical norms characteristic of the cultures in question. These norms may affect the usage of the pronouns. For example, English-speaking countries’ ethical norms allow people to talk about a person who is nearby in the third person singular (by employing the pronouns he or she). In the Russian community the usage of он/она is considered impolite if the person spoken about is in the same room.
Pronoun usage in a political and economic context can imply certain conclusions. For example, the pronoun she is sometimes employed when developed countries are spoken about. In contrast to she, the pronoun it often refers to developing countries (though it may also be neutral in political sense). For example, When Italy invaded Ethiopia, she was not yet checked by the League of nations. … it [Ethiopia] was not sufficiently advanced to enter the League. – Когда Италия вторглась в Эфиопию, Лига наций не остановила ее. ... Та (Эфиопия) еще была недостаточно развитым государством, чтобы войти в Лигу наций.
Furthermore, there is a traditional reference in English to a vehicle (a boat, car, etc.) in the form of she: Look at my new car – isn't she beautiful? – Посмотри на мою новую машину – не правда ли красивая?
There is also some pragmatic difference between using English and Russian personal pronouns. English, being an egocentric language, is speaker-centered; Russian is considered to be an “alter-egocentric” listener-centered language. Therefore, in English speech the pronoun I sounds much oftener than in Russian, so in translation it is frequently substituted by ты/вы: How do I know this? – А как вы это докажете? I wonder what he did? – Что он такое сделал, как ты думаешь? I’ll take eggs and ham. – Давай яичницу с ветчиной. No doubt, one shouldn’t overuse this transformation. This is merely a tendency, not a fixed rule.
It should be kept in mind that pronoun repetition can lead to differences in the sentences. Cf., Mom came in the room and turned off the lights. – Мама вошла в комнату и выключила свет. Mom came into the room and she turned off the lights. – Мама вошла в комнату, и это она выключила свет. The first sentence expresses a succession of two actions; the second, a sort of complaint about Mom’s turning off the lights, is emphasized in Russian by an expressive construction.
An English co-referential pronoun can precede the noun, which is alien to Russian. Therefore, a translator should not be confused by who is meant in the sentence: When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. – Приехав, Джон сразу отправился в банк. A visit to her invalid parents in Indiana… gave New York City actress Gretchen Cryer an idea. – Когда нью-йоркская актриса Гретхен Крайер навестила своих больных родителей в Индиане, ей пришла в голову одна идея. If a pronoun must be verbalized, there should be a change of word order.
When translating from Russian into English, students are sometimes baffled by a form of English pronouns, used in certain positions. Such is a long-standing problem of competitive pronouns in the Nominative case and those in the Objective case in the predicative function: Это я (он, она и т.д.). - It’s I (he, she, etc.) or It’s me (him, her, etc.). After long arguments, grammarians came to the conclusion that the first version (It’s I) sounds very formal, whereas the second version (It’s me) is neutral and informal.
The same holds true in reference to comparative structures: Он старше меня. – He is older than me. / He is older than I. The latter English version is more formal. The same stylistic coloring differentiates sentences with a personal pronoun after but: Никто кроме меня не сделает этого. – Nobody but me can do it. / Nobody but I can do it. The latter form, being hypercorrect, is no longer used.128
In coordinate phrases with the conjunction and/or, the case form depends on the pronoun’s syntactic function. As a subject, pronouns take the Nominative case form; as an object, they take an objective case form: You and I should be friends. In alter-egocentric Russian, this conjoint meaning is expressed differently, with the pronoun I avoided: Мы с тобой должны быть друзьями. That should be between you and me. – Это должно остаться между нами. She didn’t hit him or me. – Она не ударила ни его, ни меня.