14. Antonyms in English

Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions.

V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups : absolute or root antonyms /»late» - «early»/ and derivational antonyms / «to please’ - «to displease»/ . Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes form antonyms / un-, dis-, non-/. Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes -ful and -less.

The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful- and -less is not very large, and sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its antonym is formed not by substituting -ful by less-, e.g. «successful» -»unsuccessful», «selfless» - «selfish». The same is true about antonyms with negative prefixes, e.g. «to man» is not an antonym of the word «to unman», «to disappoint» is not an antonym of the word «to appoint».

The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g. «active»- «inactive». Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. «ugly» , «plain», «good-looking», «pretty», «beautiful», the antonyms are «ugly» and «beautiful».

Leonard Lipka in the book «Outline of English Lexicology» describes different types of oppositeness, and subdivides them into three types:

a) complementary, e.g. male - female, married - single,

b) antonyms, e.g. good - bad,

c) converseness, e.g. to buy - to sell.

In his classification he describes complimentarity in the following way: the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other, and vice versa. «John is not married» implies that «John is single». The type of oppositeness is based on yes/no decision. Incompatibility only concerns pairs of lexical units.

Antonymy is the second class of oppositeness. It is distinguished from complimentarity by being based on different logical relationships. For pairs of antonyms like good/bad, big/small only the second one of the above mentioned relations of implication holds. The assertion containing one member implies the negation of the other, but not vice versa. «John is good» implies that «John is not bad», but «John is not good» does not imply that «John is bad». The negation of one term does not necessarily implies the assertion of the other.

An important linguistic difference from complementaries is that antonyms are always fully gradable, e.g. hot, warm, tepid, cold.

Converseness is mirror-image relations or functions, e.g. husband/wife, pupil/teacher, precede/follow, above/below, before/after etc.

«John bought the car from Bill» implies that «Bill sold the car to John». Mirror-image sentences are in many ways similar to the relations between active and passive sentences. Also in the comparative form: »Y is smaller than X, then X is larger than Y».

L. Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional opposition up/down, consiquence opposition learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South, East/West, ( it is based on contrary motion, in opposite directions.) The pairs come/go, arrive/depart involve motion in different directions. In the case up/down we have movement from a point P. In the case come/go we have movement from or to the speaker.

L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. Here he points out serially ordered sets, such as scales / hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold/ ; colour words / black, grey, white/ ; ranks /marshal, general, colonel, major, captain etc./ There are gradable examination marks / excellent, good, average, fair, poor/. In such sets of words we can have outer and inner pairs of antonyms. He also points out cycles, such as units of time /spring, summer, autumn, winter/. In this case there are no «outermost» members.

Not every word in a language can have antonyms. This type of opposition can be met in qualitative adjectives and their derivatives, e.g. beautiful- ugly, to beautify - to uglify, beauty - ugliness. It can be also met in words denoting feelings and states, e.g. respect - scorn, to respect - to scorn, respectful - scornful, to live - to die, alive - dead, life - death. It can be also met among words denoting direction in space and time, e.g. here - there, up - down , now - never, before - after, day - night, early - late etc.

If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word «bright» has the antonyms «dim», «dull», «sad».

15. Set expressions.

1. Set expressions, semi-fixed combinations and free phrases.

2. Similarity and difference between a set expression and a word.

I

The term set expression is the most definite and the most suitable one in comparison with phraseology and idiom and phrase, because the first element points out the most important characteristics of these units, their stability and their ready made nature.

Every utterance is a patterned, rhythmed, segmented sequence of signals. On the lexical level, these signals building up the utterance are not exclusively words. Speakers may use larger blocks consisting of more than one word but functioning as a whole. These set expressions are extremely variegated structurally, functionally, semantically and stylistically. To this type may be referred expressive colloquialisms: a sight for sore eye, and also terms like: blank verse, direct object, political clichés: round-table conference, summit meeting and emotionally and stylistically neutral collocations: in front of, as well as, a great deal, give up, etc.

Even this list of expressions illustrates that the number of elements in set expressions as well as their reference to different parts of speech varies. Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi-fixed combinations. All these are but different stages of restrictions imposed upon co-occurrence of words. What is often called idiom is nothing else but restrictions imposed upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for every language.

The restrictions may be independent on the ties existing in extra-linguistic reality between the objects spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors or have extra-linguistic causes in the history of the people. In free combinations the linguistic factors are chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words.

A free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change in the other element or elements. This substitution is never unlimited.

In semi-fixed combinations we are not only able to say that such substitutes exist, but fix their boundaries by stating the semantic properties of words that can be used for substitution or even listing them. .g. the pattern consisting of the verb go followed by a preposition and a noun with no article before it (go to school, go to court) is used only with nouns of place where definite actions or functions are performed.

If substitution is only pronominal or restricted to a few synonyms for one of the members only, or impossible, i.e. if the elements of the phrase are always the same and make a fixed context for each other the word-group is a set expression. No substitution of any elements is possible in the following unchangeable set expressions, which differ in all other respects: red tape, first night, heads or tails, to hope for the best, as busy as a bee, to and fro. No substitution is possible because it would destroy the meaning of the euphonic and expressive qualities of the whole.

These set expressions are also interesting from the point of view of their informational characteristics, i.e. the sum total of information contained in the word-group is created by mutual interaction of elements.

E.g. Heads or tails– comes from the old custom of deciding a dispute which of two possible alternatives shall be followed by tossing a coin.

In a free phrase this correlation is different and each element has a much greater semantic independence. Each component may be substituted without affecting the meaning of the other

E.g. to cut bread, to cut cheese, to eat bread.

If we take an expression to cut a poor figure – practically no substitution is possible here without ruining the meaning: E.g. I had an uneasy fear that he might cut a poor figure beside all these clever Russian officers. He was not managing to cut much of a figure. – the only substitution that is possible here concerns adjectives: poor, much of, bad. That is why it refers to semi-fixed combinations.

In the example cut no ice(to have no influence) no substitution is possible.

The give uptype presents great interest from the phraseological viewpoint. An almost unlimited number of such units may be formed by the use of the simpler verbs combined with elements that have been treated asadverbs, preposition-like adverbs, postposition of adverbial origin, postpositives, postpositive prefixes.

The verbs most frequent in these units are: bear, blow, break, bring, call, take, make turn, etc.

It is more common with the verbs denoting motion: go on, go by, go ahead, go downetc.

Only combinations forming integral wholes, the meaning of which is not readily derived from the meaning of the components, so that the lexical meaning of one of the components is strongly influenced by the presence of the other, are referred to set expressions.

II

There is a necessity to distinguish between a set expression and a compound word. One of the criteria is the formal integrity of words.

E.g. the word breakfast (it is a word because – he breakfasts not breaks fast)

It is impossible to distinguish all words on this basis. Some authors point out the syntactic function, but it is not specific for all set expressions.

Two types of substitution tests can be useful in showing the points of similarity and difference between words and set expressions. In the first procedure a whole set expression is replaced within a context by a synonymous word in such a way that the meaning of the utterance remains unchanged, e.g. he was in a brown study– he wasgloomy.

In the second type of substitution test only an element of the set expression is replaced, e.g. as white as chalk– as whiteas milk(snow). In this second type it is the set expression that is retained, although its composition or referential meaning may change.

E.g. the set expression dead beatcan be substituted by a single word exhausted. This possibility permits us to regard this set expression as a word equivalent. But there are cases when substitution is not possible.

E.g. red tapecan be substituted only by a free phrase ‘rigid formality of official routine’.

The main point of difference between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter into separately structured elements, which is contrasted to the structural integrity of words.

Although equivalent to words in being introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from them because it can be resolved into words whereas words are resolved into morphemes. In compound words the process of integration is more advanced.

16. Set expressions.