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nailed to the horizon... the continuation of the asphalted streets. Some specialists simply made its colour a little bluer [14, p. 205].

Here is yet an even stranger example of the sea's description:

"One said: "The sea was killed. It was run down by a bus in the street...». Another said:

"The sea was dredged". The third one said: "The sea ran away. It was chased by a dancer from the Temple of Twist... She had wanted to fall into its embrace, but it had grown afraid for the purity of its colour..." [14, p. 205].

Here the sea is a substance or maybe even some gigantic fantastic beast, unfathomable and unimaginable. It could be “dredged”, “killed”, “ran down by a bus” or “chased by a dancer”. It could “become afraid”, “run away out of care for "the purity of its colour". Here “some specialists can make the sea bluer”.

Such extremely elaborate and complex symbols make Ghadah As-Samman's stories even harder to understand. Although it is noteworthy that in this case these symbols form an integral part of these works, which attests to their modernist nature. However, as opposed to the previous authors, who use symbols to depict the day-to-day realia of the lives of the characters and the society as a whole, and as N.M. Shuyskaya keenly points out, "no day-to-day descriptions or lengthy depictions of everyday realia can be found in G. As-Samman's literary works" [14, p.206]. She turns day-to-day realia into symbols which she then uses like bricks to build her stories. So, symbols are her work materials. At the same time their vagueness and oddness can only be compared to the complexity of her stories, characters and their inner worlds.

The middle of last century gave rise to many schools and genres the Arabic literature, of which realism reached the highest point of development. This article deals with some of the works of Egyptian writers Yahya Haqqy and Abu Al-Muata Abu An-Naga which enjoy renown and popularity not only in the Arabic countries, but outside them as well. Their realistic short novels and stories are of special interest to the scholars of Arabic literature. Symbols, apart from other artistic devices, have a special place and role in them. As opposed to such artistic devices as metaphors and allegories, symbols are used to convey a universal multifaceted idea and attain even more depth and a higher degree of generalisation. It is quite often that an author chooses some item, object or place as a symbol, e.g. one of Cairo's squares in Haqqy's story. Even some kind of sense and corresponding emotions, like a stench for instance in Abu AlMuata Abu An-Naga's story, may be symbols. At the same time in no way do symbols contradict the realistic nature of a literary work, on the contrary, they reinforce its concept. Usually symbols appear repeatedly, thus drawing the reader's attention to what really matters. The symbol itself is usually very clear and simple. The inner worlds of the characters are in no way less clear, despite their complexity. It's quite possible that this can be explained by the fact that these short stories and novels, were, first and foremost, addressed to a broad and frequently common audience, which, in its turn, attests to their egalitarian character.

While the inner worlds of both Yahya Haqqy's and Abu Al-Muata Abu An-Naga's characters are quite transparent, despite their obvious complexity, and they use clear and unambiguous symbols as certain accents and highlights, the symbols in modernistic literary works, e.g. those of Ghadah As-Samman, are extremely complex and vague. It is often that household objects and utensils become symbols, as it is in the abovementioned short stories and novels. However, some magical characteristics are attributed to them at the same time. They come alive and interfere with the life of characters, dominate them. In this context the colours the author chooses gain special significance. In her stories symbols sophisticate the characters the author uses to depict the world around them even further. Ghadah As-Samman uses day-today realia strictly as symbols. The symbols in her stories attest to their existential and modernistic nature.

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Conclusion.

1.The analysis of Yahya Haqqy's literary style proves wrong such Egyptian critics as Ali Ar-Rai and Faruk Kadir, who argued that his story Om Hashem's Lantern belonged to symbolism. The author's attention to day-to-day details and his urge to depict the lives of his characters and the society as a whole in the most unbiased way possible attest to the fact that the stories in question are an example of well-written and developed realism.

2.The peculiarity of symbols used in realistic literary works is that the reader witnesses their birth. Same symbols appear repeatedly in the course of one story, thus becoming the focal point of the reader's attention as well as amplifying both the message and the emotional impact. They are shown in evolution and depict real life truthfully.

3.In Ghadah As-Samman's stories the reader has to deal with finished and static symbols. As opposed to Haqqy, whose symbols evolve in real world, her symbols are born in her characters' subjective perception. Here we have connection between the method and the device. Haqqy's symbols amplify the message, while those of As-Samman usually sophisticate the emotional and subjective sides of her characters whose perception and imagination she uses to depict the surrounding life and the world.

References

[1]Kirpichenko V.N. Safronov V.V. «Istorija egipetskoj literatury XIX-XX vekov, Moskva izdatel'skaja firma «Vostochnaja literatura» RAN, 2003.269 s.

[2]Fridlender G.M. «Pojetika russkogo realizma» Ocherki o russkoj literature.

Leningrad. Nauka. 1971. 294 s.

[3] Faruk abdel' Kadir. Patriot Egipta i drug bednjakov. قش اع رص م ق يدص و ءارق ف لا. Zhur-nal At-Talia. Na arab. jaz., Kair 1975. №2. 148 s.

[4]Uspenskaja N.A. Stanovlenie realisticheskogo napravlenija v egipetskoj proze pervoj poloviny HH veka: (na primere tvochestva pisatelej «novoj shkoly» i Jah'i Hak-ki): monografija / Nina Uspenskaja; Mosk. Gos. In-t mezhdunarodnyh otnoshenij (un-t) M-va inostr. Del Ros. Federacii, kaf. Jazykov stran Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka – M. : MGIMOUniversitet, 2017. – 191s. – (Nauchnaja shkola MGIMO / [red. sovet serii: A.V.Torkunov /pred./ i dr.]).

[5]Dostoevskij F.M. Dnevnik pisatelja 1873, stat'i i zametki 1873-78. Polnoe sob-ranie soch. v 30 t. Nauka, Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1980, t 21, 554 s.

[6] Abbas Saleh. Zashhitnik otverzhennyh i drug bednjakov. بي ب ح ن يرس ك ن م لا ءاهل ب لاو ني كاس م لاو . s 75-85, //Sbornik statej. Sem'desjat svechej v zhizni Jah'i Hakki. Izd. Al' Hejatul'- Misrijal'-Amma lil'-kuttab. Na arab. jaz.,Kair. 1975. 275 s.

[7]Ahmad Bahdzhit Jah'ja Hakki i premija. ىي ح ي يق ح ةز ئاج لاو . s.95-103, //Sbornik statej. Sem'desjat svechej v zhizni Jah'i Hakki. Izd. Al' Hejatul'-Misrijal'-Amma lil'-kuttab. Na arab. jaz.,Kair. 1975. 275 s.

[8]Atyja Naim. Faktor voli v rasskazah Jah'i Hakki. لماع ة دارلاا ي ف صص ق ىي ح ي يق ح. s.137-165 // Sbornik statej. Sem'desjat svechej v zhizni Jah'i Hakki. Izd. Al' Hejatul'-Misrijal'- Amma lil'-kuttab. Na arab. jaz., Kair. 1975. 275 s.

[9]Vasil'ev A.V. Egipet i egiptjane, Moskva, Klassika pljus, 2000, 352 s.

[10]Muhammad Kasim. Jah'ja Hakki i lampadka Umm Hashim. ىي ح ي يق ح ل يدن قو ما مش اه 179-187. // Sbornik statej. Sem'desjat svechej v zhizni Jah'i Hakki. Izd. Al' Hejatul'- Misrijal'- Amma lil'-kuttab. Na arab. jaz., Kair. 1975. 275 s.

Sbornik statej. Sem'desjat svechej v zhizni Jah'i Hakki. Izd. Al' Hejatul'- Misrijal'- Amma lil'- kuttab. na arab. jaz., Kair. 1975. 275 s.

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[12]Uspenskaja N.A. Vostok – Zapad – Rossija: process kul'turnogo vzaimodejstvija: monografija / N.A.Uspenskaja. Mosk. Gos. In-t mezhdunar. Otnoshenij (un-t) MID Rossii, kaf. Jazykov stran Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka. – M. :MGIMO-Universitet, 2011. – 124 s.

[13]A.F. Losev «Problema simvola i realisticheskoe iskusstvo». Moskva, izd. Iskusstvo, 1976 , 320 c.

[14]Shujskaja N.M. «Pojetessa rasskaza» Novellistika Gady as-Saman. 60-90 gg.HHveka.: monografija / N.M.Shujskaja; Moskva, Mosk. Gos. In-t mezhdunar. Otnoshenij (un-t) MID Rossii, kaf. Jazykov stran Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka. – M. :MGIMOUniversitet,2013. – 272s. (serija «Nauchnaja shkola MGIMO/U/»).

arab.jaz., Kair, Izd. Hejatul'-Misrijal'-Amma lil'-kuttab. 1975. 203 s.

Dictionaries used

[1**] Lermontovskaja jenciklopedija. Moskva. Sovetskaja jenciklopedija. 1981. 784s.

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UDC 82-1

“BALDR’S DRAUMAR” AS AS SAMPLE OF POETRY

"BEYOND THE GRAVE"

T.V. Toporova

____________________________________________________________________________

Institute of linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Doctor in Philology, Leading Research Officer of the German Sector of the Institute of linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Tatyana Vladimirovna Toporova e-mail: t1960@list.ru

____________________________________________________________________________

Statement of the problem. The article concerns the analysis of the “Baldr`s Dreams”. The main objective of the article is to define afterlife charm (Old-Islandic val-galdr, “charm of the dead”), forming the core of the song.

Results. The article describes afterlife charm, forming the core of the song “Baldr`s Dreams”. Thorough description of linguo-stylistic features of the song is represented, the presence of the other genres in the song is determined. Convincing explanations of their co-existence are presented, their common origin is found out.

Conclusion. The main result of the article is that the subject of the song – a journey into another world and a magical effect on the dead prophetess (O.-Icel. vǫlva) in order to learn the fate of god Baldr - and the myth of the Baldr’s death as the first sacrifice predetermines the genre structure of "The Dreams of Baldr", an additional song of the "Elder Edda", in which organically interact "spell of the dead", verbal activity, quest and epistemological song.

Key words: genre, linguo-stylistics, syntaxes, semantics, world model, reconstruction.

For citation: Toporova T.V. “Baldr’s Draumar” as as sample of poetry "Beyond the Grave"/ T.V. Toporova // Scientific Journal “Modern Linguistic and Methodical-and-didactic Researches”. – 2018. -

№1 (20). – P. 67 - 73.

Introduction.

Baldrs draumar (Baldr's dreams) or Vegtamskviða1 is one of the supplementary songs of the Old Icelandic epic poem Elder Edda. These songs are of particular interest to scholars for a number of reasons:

Although this song is not part of the Codex Regius, as it has come down to us in the 14th- century manuscript AM 748 (a collection of fragments of Old Icelandic poetry in the Eddic style), it presents extensive parallels (sometimes going as far as identity) with certain Eddic mythological songs and can therefore be included with good reason in the m y t h o l o g i c a l cycle of the Elder Edda

Convincing evidence that Baldrs draumar is part of the mythological songs of the Elder Edda is also provided by its c o n t e n t , which may be considered as a variation on the famous Völuspá, with the only difference that here the vǫlva (female seer) is dead and speaks from the otherworld

Baldrs draumar may be seen as a unique manifestation of “otherworldly” poetry, as it presents the utterances of the d e a d vǫlva whom Odin summons from the tomb and forces to speak.

___________________

© Toporova T.V., 2018

1 Vegtam is a heiti of Odin, the supreme god of the Scandinavian pantheon. It literally means “He who is accustomed to the path.”

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Baldrs draumar casts light on a highly relevant mythological subject – the m y t h o f B a l d r , whose demise is the first death in the Old Icelandic mythopoetic model of the universe that led to the “death of the gods,” a major eschatological catastrophe Baldr’s fate determined the destiny of the universe: it not only directly led to the next turn of events (the end of the universe) but also influenced a more remote stage of the development of the world (revival and renewal after the “death of the gods” when the return of the good god Baldr symbolized the beginning of a new era of harmony and prosperity); thus the information contained in Baldrs draumar allows us to reconstruct key elements of the Eddic model of the universe

In its f o r m , Baldrs draumar, which consists of questions and answers about the future structure of the universe, most likely “reflects the process of apprentices learning from a priest and stems from a ritual dialogue, in which the symmetry of questions and answers and their numeration have a mnemonic function” [2, p. 50]; in other words, the plot is expressed primarily through drama (dialogue) rather than narrative [3]. In this regard, Baldrs draumar may be compared with such examples of cosmogonic poetry as Vafþrúðnismál and, to a lesser extent, Grímnismál, and the information that they contain contribute to our understanding of this genre describing the creation myth

Complex aural techniques such as the anagram2 show that Baldrs draumar is a poetic text Baldrs draumar is also quite interesting insofar as it shows the influence of the Christian world view,3 on the one hand, and potential historical contacts,4 whose impact may be reflected

in this text, on the other

For all these reasons, it is clear that Baldrs draumar merits close attention, which is our aim in the present article. We strive to single out the conjuration of the dead (O.-Icel. valgaldr) that forms the core of this song and make a detailed description of its linguo-stylistic aspects as well as to uncover the other genres included in this song and give convincing explanations for their coexistence and find their common source.

Let us give a brief description of Baldrs draumar before undertaking its comprehensive analysis. With regard to its dating, specialists have advanced two diametrically opposed conjectures: some rank it among the oldest songs (in particular, Jónsson5), while others (including Jan de Vries6) assert that it is a late text dating from 1150-1250. The latter view is prevalent today. The song has the following plot: the god Odin rides into the otherworld (hel) and forces the vǫlva to rise from the tomb in order to learn about the fate of his son Baldr. The seer tells him that Baldr was killed with a mistletoe shoot by the blind one-armed god Höðr. She describes how Baldr was bewailed by his mother Frigg and how he will return to the earth when it revives from the eschatological crisis.

Results.

After giving extra-linguistic information about Baldrs draumar, let us undertake a linguostylistic analysis that shows the presence of the following genres with their characteristic markers:

1) Q u e s t (v o y a g e t o t h e o t h e r w o r l d )

2Cf. the coding of the name of the main character Baldr: eða B a l d r s b a n a á b á l vega (Bdr. 10)

“or he will slay Baldr’s killer on the pyre”*.

3Baldr, killed for nothing, is compared with the dying Jesus Christ, who descended into the otherworld [4].

4A reference to the Vikings, whose expansion brought them in contact with the Anglo-Irish version of Christianity [5, p. 25].

5Cf. [6].

6Cf. [7].

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R i s e :7

Upp r e i s Óðinn, alda Gautr (Bdr. 2) “Odin rose, the old Gautr”8; unz nauðig r e i s (Bdr. 4) “until (the vǫlva) was finally forced to rise”*

C o m e :

hann k o m at hávo Heliar ranni (Bdr. 3) “he came to the high abode of Hel”*; Svá k o m i t manna meirr aptr á vit (Bdr. 14) “From now on, nobody will come here”

rode to the east of the gates”*; Heim r í ð þú, Óðinn (Bdr. 14) “Ride home, Odin”*

P a t h , w a y :

fram reið Óðinn, f o l d v e g r dunði, // hann kom at hávo Heliar ranni (Bdr. 3) (Bdr. 3) “Odin rode on, // the path of the ground trembled, // he came to the high abode of Hel”*; er mér hefir aukit erfit s i n n i (Bdr. 5) “who encumbered me with a difficult path”*10; V e g t a m r ec heiti, sonr em ec Valtams (Bdr. 6) “I am called ‘He who is accustomed to the path’, I am the son of ‘Him who is accustomed to the fallen’”*; Ertattu V e g t a m r , sem ec hugða (Bdr. 13) “You are not ‘He who is accustomed to the path’, contrary to what I thought”*

T o m b :

þar er hann vissi vǫlo l e i ð i (Bdr. 4) “where the tomb of the vǫlva lay, as he knew”

D e a d :

nam hann vittugri v a l g a l d r qveða (Bdr. 4) “he began to utter prophetically (/magically) the spell of the dead”*; Vegtamr ec heiti, sonr em ec V a l t a m s (Bdr. 6) “I am called ‘He who is accustomed to the path’, I am the son of ‘Him who is accustomed to the fallen’”*; n á s orð um qvað (Bdr. 4) “(the vǫlva) uttered the word of the dead”*; d a u ð var ec lengi (Bdr. 5) “I was dead a long time ago”*

F u n e r a l p y r e :

eða Baldrs bana á b á l vega (Bdr. 10) “or he will slay Baldr’s killer on the pyre”*; áðr á b á l um berr Baldrs andscota (Bdr. 11) “until he brings Baldr’s foe to the pyre”*

K i l l e r :

hverr man Baldri at b a n a verða (Bdr. 8; similarly 9) “who will become Baldr’s killer”; eða Baldrs b a n a á bál vega (Bdr. 10) “or he will slay Baldr’s killer on the pyre”*

K i l l , s l a y :

oc Óðins son a l d r i r æ n a (Bdr. 8; 9) “and steal the life of Odin’s son”*; eða Baldrs bana á bál v e g a (Bdr. 10) “or he will slay Baldr’s killer on the pyre”*

ning from Hel”; hann kom at hávo H e l i a r ranni (Bdr. 3) “he came to the high abode of

Hel”*; segðu mér ór h e l i o – ec man ór heimi – (Bdr. 6) “tell me from Hel, I will recall the world (of the living)”*

2) M a g i c a l p r a c t i c e

S p e l l :

7This verb is included on the list, as it signifies the start of motion.

8“Gautr is one of Odin’s names. The Gauts were a Scandinavian tribe. The land where they lived was called Gautland. The Gauts apparently worshipped Odin” [1, p. 250].

9Niflheliar, lit. ‘the hel of mist, the kingdom of the dead’.

10I.e., made me rise from the tomb and undertake a difficult journey.

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oc g a l d r s fǫður gó um lengi (Bdr. 3) “he conjured the father11 of spells for a long time”; nam hann vittugri v a l g a l d r qveða (Bdr. 4) “he began to utter prophetically (/magically) the spell of the dead”*

C o n j u r e :

oc galdrs fǫður gó12 um lengi (Bdr. 3) “he conjured the father of spells13 for a long time”

B e a l l - p o w e r f u l :

þic vil ec fregna, // unz a l k u n n a , vil ec enn vita (Bdr. 8) “I want to ask you, // I want to know to be all-powerful”*

M a g i c :

nam hann v i t t u g r i valgaldr qveða (Bdr. 4) “he began to utter prophetically (/magically) the spell of the dead”*

3) V e r b a l a c t i v i t y (verbal duel)

S a y , u t t e r :

nam hann vittugri valgaldr q v e ð a (Bdr. 4) “he began to utter prophetically (/magically) the spell of the dead”*; nás orð um q v a ð (Bdr. 4) “(the vǫlva) uttered the word of the dead”*; Nauðug s a g ð a c , nú mun ec þegia (Bdr. 7; 9; 11) “I was forced to speak, now I will keep silent”*;

K e e p s i l e n t :

Nauðug sagðac, nú mun ec þ e g i a (Bdr. 7; 9; 11) “I was forced to speak, now I will keep silent”*; Þ e g i a t t u , vǫlva! (Bdr. 8; 10; 12) “Keep silent, vǫlva!”*

A s k :

þic vil ec f r e g n a (Bdr. 8) “I want to ask you”*

W o r d :

nás o r ð um qvað (Bdr. 4) “(the vǫlva) uttered the word of the dead”*

4) E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s o n g

K n o w :

þar er hann v i s s i vǫlo leiði (Bdr. 4) “where the tomb of the vǫlva lay, as he knew”*; þic vil ec fregna, // unz alkunna, vil ec enn v i t a (Bdr. 8) “I want to ask you, // I want to know to be all-powerful”*

T h i n k :

Ertattu Vegtamr, sem ec h u g ð a (Bdr. 13) “You are not ‘He who is accustomed to the path’, contrary to what I thought”*

D i s c u s s :

oc um þat r é ð o , ríkir tívar, // hví væri Baldri ballir draumar (Bdr. 1) “the powerful gods discussed why Baldr’s dreams were so ominous”

( U n ) k n o w n , ( u n ) f a m i l i a r :

Hvat er manna þat, mér ó k u n n r a (Bdr. 5) “Who is the person there that is unfamiliar to me”*

W i s e :

Ertattu vǫlva, né v í s kona (Bdr. 13) “You are not a vǫlva, not a wise woman”*

5) R e c o l l e c t i o n

R e m e m b e r , r e c a l l :

segðu mér ór helio – ec m a n ór heimi – (Bdr. 6) “tell me from Hel, I will recall from the world (of the living)”*

11I.e., Odin.

12Neckel’s edition adopts the conjecture gól ‘sang’ [1а, p. 277], the past tense of the Old-Icel. verb gala ‘to sing’ that is used to designate magical practice [8, p. 69], i.e., the etymological figure galdrs … gól “spell … conjure” occurs in the third verse.

13I.e., Odin.

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These linguistic facts allow us to make a number of conclusions about the genre structure of Baldrs draumar, which turns out to be a lot less primitive than may seem at first sight. The very title of this supplementary Eddic song contains the notion of dream (Old-Icel. draumr), which is also found in the text (cf.

oc um þat réðo, ríkir tívar, // hví væri Baldri ballir d r a u m a r (Bdr. 1) “the powerful gods discussed why Baldr’s dreams were so ominous”).

Information from other sources, especially the Younger Edda, helps us to specify the meaning of Old-Icel. draumr, which refers to the obsessive visions of the end of the world and the prophetic insights that Baldr experienced on the eve of his death. They have a direct relation to the sphere of the m a g i c a l , which is very important for understanding the genre structure of this work. It suffices to recall the characterization of Odin as the “father of spells” (Bdr. 3) and his “resuscitation” of the vǫlva, which provides an example of necromancy and the magical hypostasis of the supreme god of the Scandinavian pantheon, similar to shamanism.14

Odin’s demonic nature is expressed in his use of the riddle of the waves in the twelfth verse as the most accessible means of showing his magical powers15 and revealing his true nature and real name. Such examples are also found in other Eddic songs of the mythological cycle, whose final sections feature a riddle that no one can guess apart from its author and that serves as a key for establishing the latter’s identity. In particular, in the Vafþrúðnismál Odin engages in a contest under a false name to hide his origins. The moment of his self-identification occurs only at the very end of the contest and brings him victory. The giant Vafþrúðnir realizes that he had competed against the god Odin himself. Let us cite the final verses of the song containing this episode, in which, interestingly enough, Odin’s son Baldr is also mentioned:

hvat mælti Ó ð i n n , áðr á bál stigi, // s i á l f r í eyra syni? (Vm. 54) “what did Odin himself say when he mounted the pyre, // in his son’s ear?”*;

Ey manni þat veit, hvat þ ú í árdaga // sagðir í eyra syni; // … Nú ec við Ó ð i n n deildac mína orðspeki, // þ ú ert æ vísastr vera (Vm. 55) “I shared the words of wisdom with Odin; // you are the wisest”*.16

The spell (Old-Icel. val-galdr ‘conjuration of the dead’) as an invariable attribute of all magical practice plays a predominant role alongside other aspects of the latter such as the predicate to conjure (a cognate of the Old-Icel. gala), the predicate can (Old-Icel. al-kunna) that characterizes the subject’s absolute power over the world, and the adjective visionary (Old-Icel. vittugr). Old-Icel. val-galdr ‘conjuration of the dead’ is a compound whose first element specifies and modifies the meaning of the basic word spell, conjuration, characterizing the vector of the magic as directed at the otherworld, which is described in great detail in Baldrs draumar. Its manifestations include both its direct nomination (Hel, Niflhel) and other characteristics such as its localization below,17 its inhabitants (the chthonic hound,18 the dead19), the final rest-

14For more details, see [9, p. 325].

15The presence of a magical aspect may be expressed implicitly: for example, the horse Sleipnir always refers to a magical, supernatural speed of travel from one place to another [10, p. 63].

16There exist different interpretations of Odin’s last word to Baldr on the funeral pyre. Jan de Vries lists the following possible variants: «Stärkende Zauberformel, geheimes Götterwort, Verheißung von Baldrs Rückkehr, Verheißung der Rache” [9, p. 300].

17Cf.: reið hann n i ð r þaðan N i f l h e l i a r til (Bdr. 2) “he rode down from there to Niflheliar”*.

18Cf.: mœtti hann h v e l p i , þeim er ór h e l i o kom (Bdr. 3) “he encountered the hound, who came running from Hel.” This is a reference to Garm, who guards the entrance to Hel [Steblin-Kamensky 1963, 250].

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ing place of the dead (the tomb20), the means of getting there (to slay (in battle)) and the subjects of this action (the killer), and the instrument of penetrating into it (the funerary pyre). This hypertrophied description of the otherworld becomes more understandable if one recalls the plot of the song (Odin’s trip to Hel) and its broader context – the interpretation of the myth of Baldr as a “myth of the appearance of death21 as the first sacrifice and as a reflection of the custom of burning corpses” [Mify narodov mira 1980, I, 160].

It is noteworthy that the otherworld is associated with the “death of the gods” – cf. the numerous eschatological connotations (including the use of an aural code):

fram reið Óðinn, foldvegr dunði, // hann kom at hávo H e l i a r ranni (Bdr. 3) (Bdr. 3)

“Odin rode on, // the path of the ground trembled, // he came to the high abode of Hel”*;

Svá komit manna meirr aptr á vit, // er lauss Loki líðr ór bǫndom // oc ragna rǫc riúfendr koma (Bdr. 14) “From now on, nobody will come here, // until Loki is delivered from his bonds, // and the lacerating fate of the gods sets in.”

As the magical practice has a v e r b a l character, the verbs of speaking and their antipodes (speak, ask; keep silent) and derivatives (word) are quite productive here.

One expects fragments of the q u e s t in Baldrs draumar, as the need arises to get into the otherworld, which can be performed only through a journey. The idea of dynamics is implemented both by various verbs of motion (come, ride, rise) and by denotations of the way and path, which symbolize the connection between objects in space expressed as appellatives (OldIcel. sinni) and proper nouns (cf. the heiti of Odin’s main character “He who is accustomed to the path” – Old-Icel. Veg-tamr).

As the aim of the voyage to Hel is knowledge about the fate awaiting the god Baldr, the presence of the e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l song is also not surprising. Its attributes include verbs denoting mental activity (know, think, discuss) along with their corresponding adjectives (wise, (un)known).

Fragments of the genre of r e c o l l e c t i o n are reduced (only one example is represented). Their marginal position is the result of their intention – the reference to the Eddic conception, whose essence lies in identifying knowledge and the recollection of events from the moment of the creation of the universe:

hvat þú fyrst m a n t eða fremst um v e i z t (Vm. 34) “what you recall in the first place or know before everything”*.

Conclusion.

Thus we can say that the plot of the song – the voyage to the otherworld and the magical impact on the dead seer (vǫlva) in order to learn about the fate of the god Baldr – and the myth of Baldr’s death as the first sacrifice determine the genre structure of Baldrs draumar, which

19The importance of this notion is attested by the highly developed set of synonymic nominations designating it. Cf. Old-Icel. dauðr, nár, valr.

20There exist interesting extra-linguistic facts about witch burials in Iceland as well as Celtic parallels. As Jan de Vries wrote, “Odin reitet zu einem vǫlvaleiði (d. i. einem Grab einer vǫlva), um dort durch Beschwörung die Tote zum Reden zu zwingen (Bdr. 4). Es scheint, daß auf Island solche Grabstätten bis in die neueste Zeit mit einer gewissen Scheu betrachtet worden sind. In einer irischen Qwelle hören wir sogar von der Frau eines gewissen Tuirges, die auf dem Altar von Clonmacnois einem jeden

Antwort erteilte; sie war also Priesterin und vǫlva zu gleicher Zeit” [Vries 1970, I, 325].

21The italics are ours - Т.Т.

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represents an organic combination of the “conjuration of the dead,” verbal activity, quest, and epistemological song.

References

[1]Steblin-Kamenskij M.I. «Starshaja Jedda» // Starshaja Jedda. Drevneislandskie pesni o bogah i gerojah. / Perevod A.I. Korsuna. Redakcija, vstupitel'naja stat'ja i kom-mentarii M.I. Steblin-Kamenskogo. – M.-L., 1963. – S. 181-213.

[2]Vries Jan. de. Om Eddaens Visdomsdigtnig // Arkiv för nordisk filologi, 1934, bd. 50, 1-

59.

[3]Phillpotts B.S. The Elder Edda and ancient Scandinavian drama. Cambridge, 1920.

[4]Bugge S. Studier over de nordiske Gudeog Heltesagns Oprindelse // Christiania, bd. I, 1881-1889.

[5]Einarsson St. A history of Icelandic literature. The Johns Hopkins Press for The Ameri-can -Scandinavian Foundation, New York, 1957.

[6]Jónsson F. Den oldnorske og oldislandske Litteraturs Historie. 2. Udgave, bd. 1, København, 1920.

[7]Vries J. de. Altnordische Literaturgeschichte. Berlin, Leipzig, 1941-1942. Bd. 1-2 // Grundriss der germanischen Philologie herausgegeben von H. Paul. Bd. 15-16.

[8]Kuhn H. Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern. Hrsg. von Gustav Neckel. II. Kurzes Wörterbuch von Hans Kuhn. Dritte umgearbeitete Auflage des Kom-mentierenden Glossars. Heidelberg, 1968. Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.

[9]Vries J. de. Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte. Dritte, unveränderte Auflage. Berlin, Walter de Gryter & Co, 1970, Bd. I // Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, 12/1.

[10]Vries J. de. Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte. Dritte, unveränderte Auflage.

Berlin, Walter de Gryter & Co, 1970, Bd. II // Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, 12/1.

[11]Mify narodov mira. Jenciklopedija. Tom pervyj A – K. M., 1980. Glavnyj re-daktor S.A. Tokarev. Chleny redakcionnoj kollegii I.S. Braginskij, I.M. D'jakonov, V.V. Ivanov, R.V. Kinzhalov, A.F. Losev, V.M. Makarevich (otvetstvennyj sekretar'), E.M. Meletinskij (zamestitel' glavnogo redaktora), D.A. Ol'derogge, B.L. Riftin, E.M. Shtaerman. M.: izdatel'stvo «Sovetskaja jenciklopedija», 1980.

Analysed Sources

[1*]. Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern. Hrsg. von Gustav Neckel. I. Text. Vierte, umgearbeitete Auflage von Hans Kuhn. Heidelberg, 1962.

[2*]. Starshaja Jedda. Drevneislandskie pesni o bogah i gerojah. Perevod A.I. Korsu-na. Redakcija, vstupitel'naja stat'ja i kommentarii M.I. Steblin-Kamenskogo. M.-L., 1963.

Abbreviations (Names of songs of the “Elder Edda”)

Vm. - Vafþrúðnismál “The Speeches of Vafthrudnir” Vsp. - Völuspá “The Prophecy of Vǫlva”

Þrk. - Þrymsqviða “The Lay of Þrymir”

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