2. Structure of sociological system of knowledge.

System of sociological knowledge has its specific structure that includes three levels:

First sociological level - general sociological theory.

Second level - special sociological theories.

Third level - concrete-sociological (empirical) investigations.

First sociological level presents general sociological theory that covers the most general laws and regularities of functioning and development of such social communities as society in general and humankind. In this context we can view sociology as a theoretical-methodological basis of not only second and third levels of sociological researches but also as methodology of other humanitarian and sociological sciences.

General sociological theory gives an idea of society as an integral organism, system of its social mechanisms, reveals place and role of basic social relationships, formulates principles of social cognition, basic methodological demands of system analysis, stratification-class approach, genetic analysis, complex concrete-historical approach, analysis of phenomena in relation to other phenomena. From this point theoretical sociology can be viewed as a science about laws of human society development that includes a set of concepts and approaches to explanation of social mechanisms of society development. Let's speak about the most significant ones.

Socio-cultural approach or theory of cultural-historical types. This approach recognizes existence of different cultures that cover common stages in their development to be principal in tendencies of society development. The representatives of this approach are N. Danylevskyi, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others.

Formational approach. Supposes common way of development of all the peoples through the change of social-economical formations that are defined by way of production. The representatives of this approach are K. Marx, F. Engels, V. Lenin.

Civilization approach. The stage of development of civilization in the given historical period of society development is the most important factor of human society development. This approach includes a set of concepts starting with theory of industrial society, represented by A. Comte, W. Rostow, R. Aron, and ending with theory of convergence, represented by P. Sorokin, D. Galbraith, Jean Fourastie, and others.

It is important to realize that each of the mentioned above approaches is restricted to some extend having not only strong but also weak points. But in unity they are able to reflect a set of the most common regularities of society development that take place in certain concrete-historical conditions and reflect different sides of society life. They reflect a complicated set of processes and phenomena that take place in any society. This fact enables us to ground on them as on the methodological basis during investigation of social life in our society.

A certain level of knowledge in the field of theory of sociology is necessary to make an adequate and integral idea of social phenomena, processes and tendencies that take place in the world, to find our own place and personal position in this world.

Speaking of the second sociological level we should mention that general sociological theory serves as the basis for special sociological theories. It makes the basis for study of relatively independent social communities, for instance social-structural, ethnical, territorial ones, etc., social institutions, such as family, school, state, etc., social processes, such as labor, leisure, education, upbringing, social movements, etc. We analyze not only general regularities in certain social sub­systems but also regularities that are common to given sub-system are singled out. Sociological information that is gathered on this level is used for orientation of social governing in different spheres of social life. Special social theories also specify dogmas of general sociological theory applying to separate kinds and mechanisms of social interaction. There are three kinds of special theories distinguished.

1. Theories that study laws of development and reproduction of separate social communities. They include sociology of city, village, ethno-sociology, etc.

2. Branch sociological theories that reveal regularities and mechanisms of vital activity of social communities in certain spheres. They include sociology of labor, economical sociology, sociology of education, sociology of leisure, etc.

3. Theories that analyze separate elements of social mechanism. They include theory of social control, theory of communications, theory of social activity, etc.

Special sociological theories concretize dogmas of general theory, transferring from general conceptual notions to operational ones by means of which a concrete social process can be valued. If we are interested in efficiency of television we have to transfer from general notions of social consciousness, spiritual life to such notions of special sociology as television auditory, its interests, needs, cognitive activity, satisfaction; we also have to develop a system of indices and indicators that will help to estimate process of television influence on individuals. We should also have idea about peculiarities of social groups that comprise auditory that gives special knowledge about social structure. It is necessary to know the way outer influence is transformed in people's consciousness, i.e. we have to consult sociology of personality, theory of public spirit and so on.

Processes of socialization and adaptation of a person are probably the most important ones. They include a huge system of interaction between man and surrounding him social and natural environment. Cognition of social mechanisms of this basic processes, acquiring of skills to develop tactic of individual adaptive behavior in life enable a person to optimize interaction with environment, to avoid dangerous psychological stresses.

Third level of sociological system of knowledge comprises concrete-sociological or empirical investigations of social factors, i.e. theory, methodology and technique of concrete-sociological analysis. Evaluation of concrete sociological processes and phenomena takes place on this level. It is made on the basis of approaches, principles, indices that are given by general sociological and special sociological theories. Sometimes this level is called empiric investigations but this is not precise because there is its own theory, for instance theory of dimension. Actions, characteristics of behavior of social communities, groups and individuals and reflection of facts of social reality in human's consciousness are the subject of investigation in this case. Usage of sociological methods of collecting, processing and analysis of social information enables not only to check actions of these or that regularities of social theories of higher level in concrete conditions but also to predict tendencies in social processes, reveal problems, formulate hypothesis and sketch programs of future sociological researches. There are many kinds of concrete-sociological investigation. They differ according to scale (international, national, regional, local), time (lasting, quick), etc. According to the aim all the sociological researches can be divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental ones aim at the development of science. Applied researches aim at those perspectives that are related to solving of different practical tasks of vital activity of society.

Special sociological theories and concrete-sociological (empirical) investigations bear more of applied character then general sociological theory. They are oriented at solving certain social problems. Thus deep fundamental investigations can contribute to the field of applied sociology. Data of applied sociology (if the investigations are of deep character) are used for the development of scientific theory. Division of fundamental and applied investigations does not coincide with their division into theoretical and empirical because the last ones differ in the level of abstractness of received knowledge, in specific methods and ways of analysis but not in aims. Theoretical and empirical investigations can have fundamental character as well as applied character depending on the aims of investigation.

Division into the above mentioned levels has rather conventional character. In fact they all are related with each other and are in constant interaction. They supplement each other forming single system of sociological knowledge. This is seen in revealing of scientific-methodological basis of sociological investigation in the system of principles, laws and categories, concepts of social relations, theoretically generalizing practically all concrete empirical display of these relationship?.

Transfer of theoretical dogmas into their empirical reflection is grounded with the help of a set of indices of investigations of social structure of society, culture, public spirit, etc. This unity is realized by methodological and methodical provision of social services in every sphere о activity and in every level and kind of sociological investigation.

Modern sociology tends also to speak about two important trends more -macro- and microsociology. Macrosociology is oriented at investigation of big social communities, systems and groups and also at study of global social processes. It is aimed at cognition of laws and regularities of social life in general. Macrosociology claims that it is possible to cognize a man only through analysis of society as an integral unity.

Microsociology investigates social processes, phenomena and tendencies that take place in relatively small social systems such as family, small social group, etc. It is oriented at empiric description of phenomena and events that occur in the form of social contacts. All these cause its orientation at social-psychological methods of investigation. Microsociology aims at cognition of integrity of social life through the study of interaction, i.e. social interaction of individuals.

Basic functions of sociology.

Sociology fulfils many cognitive and practical functions. Functions of sociology comprise a set of roles that are performed in organization of society as a social system reflecting interests of different social groups and communities.

As far as sociology gives basic idea of society as an integral unity part of its cognitive functions has a methodological character. Sociological dogmas have methodological value concerning other sciences that study society also. Sociological investigations produce a considerable ideological and educational influence. They draw attention to real social contradictions, activate people's activity, mobilize it, favor formation of social thinking.

It is necessary to distinguish such notions as ideology and sociology. Ideology is a system of ideas that express and defend interests of social groups that gives an idea about society through these interests. Sociology is a science that reveals regularities and mechanisms of real development of society. Ideology is oriented at social interest and sociology is oriented at true reflection of social processes. At the same time a sociologist can not be free from ideological influence. But being a representative of science he has to release himself from ideological influence and long for objective analysis. In this connection it is necessary to distinguish sociology and philosophy because the last one represents outlook and cannot be occupied by ideology.

In modern conditions when political leaders address sociology more often refer to sociological information appears a danger of transformation of sociology into instrument of politics. It makes activity of sociology more difficult. He has to stay for truth and his independence. Points of professional ethics acquire more and more value.

Informational-diagnostic and prognostic functions belong to practical functions of sociology. Sociology gives us an idea of social processes. What is more, with accumulation of information it becomes possible to predict tendencies of further development. Functions of social projecting and social technology belong to practical functions of social-engineering character. Sociologist defines optimal way of solving practical problems, develops methods, ways, procedures of management decisions, i.e. develops social technology. Unfortunately sociologists are yet not very good at transformation of sociological information that is collected during investigation into practical recommendations and usually give advices of general character.

Speaking of functions of sociology it is necessary to mention that being a social science sociology fulfils two basic functions theoretical-cognitive and administrating. These two basic functions can produce sub-functions that sometimes in scientific literature are treated as independent ones. In domestic sociological literature following functions are distinguished: theoretical, descriptive, informational, prognostic, ideological, etc.

Theoretical function consists in accumulation and development of sociological knowledge on the basis of investigation of social reality and finding typical repeating relations between its separate sides, in description of regularities of similar relations in system of sociological categories and notions.

Descriptive function is realized in description and systematization of collected sociological material, which is resulted in reflection of ideal picture of investigated sociological object described in "sociological language". This material is accumulated in the form of scientific reports, articles, books and serves as a material for practical conclusions and administrative decisions.

Informational function supposes collection, systematization and accumulation of sociological information that is received as a result of sociological investigations. Address to • banks of sociological information enables us to compare results of investigations, select scientific methods, avoid repeating and to lower cost of investigation on the basis of using typical methods.

Prognostic function is realized in development and grounding of social prognoses basing on results of sociological investigations, i.e. predicting future social regularities and tendencies of social life in future.

Ideological function of sociology is reflected in development and introduction into public consciousness sociological understanding society life. Formation of sociological outlook aimed at understanding and coordination of interests of different social groups and communities helps to avoid narrow-class approach, favoring interests of certain class or social group.

Attention should be paid to the fact that all these functions work integrally in sociological activity and penetrate all the trends and levels of sociology. Besides of that due to its specific functions sociology is closely related to theory and practice of social management of society. Sociology is able to serve as a powerful of scientific reformation of society. Fulfilling of this depends on many factors, for instance on state of the very society, level of development of sociological science, on methodological and theoretical background of sociologists, on sociologists' moral and civic positions.

Sociology in the system of social sciences.

Society is a rather complicated object, so naturally one science if not enough to study it. Distinctive feature of sociology is that it studies society as integrity, as integral functioning and developing social organism while the other social sciences study separate sub-structures or sub-systems of society, separate kinds of relationships. For instance economical, political, juridical sciences study inner regularities of development of different sides, spheres, sub-structures, kinds of social relationships and sociology analyses interaction of basic sides, sub-structures of society, economical, political and law relationships, economics, politics and morality that enables it to reveal peculiarities of society as integrity.

Philosophy and history are characterized by analysis of society as integrity. But they treat integrity in adifferent way. For philosophy integrity means integrity of world and for history - integrity of historical process. Integrity of society in sociology is revealed as concrete reality by means of not only theoretical but also empirical methods. Sociology is not restricted by viewing society as integral formation. It reveals mechanisms of its functioning and development. Integrity in sociology is seen as a system of social mechanisms that cause progress and development of society. Sociology is able to describe behavior of big masses of people and in this case is close to statistics. From the other side inner world of a person is closed for sociology. It is studied by psychology. Social psychology that appeared as the result of collaboration of sociology and psychology describes a human being in his real environment. It touches problems of interaction of people in small group but naturally social psychologist is not able to predict change of ruling regime or the end of political struggle of parties.

He is helped by political science or politology. But from the other side politologists are not able to foresee changes of market conditions, change of demand and supply, change of prices or propose recommendations referring to improvement of tax legislature. These questions are in competence of economics.

Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, politology, anthropology and ethnography belong to social sciences. They have much in common, they are closely related to each other and form a peculiar scientific union. They are also related to the other group sciences that are referred to as humanitarian sciences: philosophy, history, study of art, literary criticism. Social sciences operate quantitative (mathematical-statistical) methods and humanitarian sciences qualitative (descriptive-evaluative) ones. Humanitarian sciences cannot be referred to as to behavioral sciences that study human behavior in groups - social institutions, market or political situations and social sciences can be called behavioral sciences.

Apart from social and humanitarian disciplines there are natural and technical ones. For instance physics, chemistry, biology refer to natural sciences revealing structure of material world. Radio electronics, biotechnics and chemistry of polymers present applied technical sciences. Grounding of fundamental knowledge they serve practical aims.

A. Comte who in the 19^th с built a pyramid of scientific knowledge placed sociology on its top (mathematics - astronomy - physics - chemistry - biology -sociology). Not only Comte but also many other thinkers believed sociology to be one of the most important sciences, because it is higher than other sciences and it uses knowledge collected by other sciences covers society in its every point.

Sociology summarizes development of sociological knowledge studying society -one of the most difficult subjects that have ever existed.

Maybe that can serve as explanation to the question why sociology appeared so late. It waited scientific knowledge to be developed enough to use its results. Young sciences are characterized by constant renewal and enrichment on expense of sciences that were formed earlier. For instance philosophy is older then physics and the last one borrowed from the first one many fundamental notions, such as "mater", "substance", "atom", "cause", "power", etc. Chemistry and biology appeared at times when physics celebrated its 2000^th anniversary. Borrowing is an index of further development of borrowed notion in the other sphere. These notions are enriched with new content and widen explanatory possibilities of science. In such a way old notions receive new life and their genealogy becomes longer. Some notions have very old genealogy and are named notions no more but categories.

Such notions-categories as "society", "personality", "values", "individual", "progress", "development" and other came into sociology from philosophy. Notion "role" was borrowed from art sphere, notion "status" - form juridical science. With time sociologists introduced their own terms, such as "socialization", "deviancy", "deviant behavior", "interaction". Maybe in future new notions will exile the old ones.

Sociology differs from other sciences not only in what it studies but also in how it studies. Apart from philosophy sociology studies society through human activity, it reveals problems, interests, value orientations, human activity, their relationships. Society from the point of view of sociology is viewed as a social integrity, as a system of social interaction, as conflict of different interests, orientations, kinds of activity.

Sociological approach to the study of society, i.e. sociological picture of society presents analysis of phenomena and processes in the system of social relationships with its relation to social integrity. Sociological approach helps not only to describe phenomena but also explain them, model them in society. Analysis of processes in their progress helps to catch tendencies of change and formulate prognoses concerning further development of social objects. Only sociological imagination can give understanding of complicated relationships of a man and society.

We have discussed sociology as a discipline that makes us to leave alone our own points of view to take a more careful look at those factors that influence formation of our life and life of other people. Sociology appeared as a separate branch of intellectual activity with the development of modern societies and study of these societies remains its main task. But sociologists also study a wide range of questions that refer to the nature of social interaction and human societies.

2. History of the development of sociology.

Sociology as any other science has the following basic components of knowledge distinguished: (1) the knowledge proper and (2) means of getting the knowledge. In the given context we will view not the subjects of the scientific activity - scientists, but only the results of their activity.

The first component - the knowledge proper - includes the knowledge of knowledge (methodological knowledge) and the knowledge of the subject. Methodological knowledge includes the outlook and methodological principles: the knowledge of the subject of sociology; knowledge of the methods, their development and application; knowledge of sociological knowledge, its forms, structure and functions. The knowledge of the subject comprises specially built classifications or typologies, conceptual or mathematical models, hypothesis and theories, statistical data.

The second component - means of getting the knowledge - comprises separate methods and sociological researches. Methods in sociology are the means of getting and systemizing of scientific knowledge about sociological reality. They include principles of organization of cognitive activity, regulative norms or rules, integrity of ways and methods of action, scheme or plan of actions.

Ways of research (research) are built in a certain consequence on the basis of regulative principles. The sequence of the ways and methods is called a procedure. Procedure is an integral part of any method.

Methods of research mean realization of the set of ways and their procedure. It means relation of one or several methods and certain procedures to the research and its conceptual apparatus, choice or development of methodological instruments (a set of methods), methodological strategy (consequence of methods and certain procedures application). Methodical instruments, methodical strategy or methods can be original, applied only in one research or standard, possible to be applied in several researches.

It should be mentioned that in different researches one and the same method is specifically transformed depending on its place and role in the research, depending on the interrelationship with the other methods. Methods of research also include technique of research. Technique of research is realization of method on the level of the simplest operations that are perfect in fulfillment. It can be represented by an integrity sequence of ways of work with the object of research (technique of data collection), with data of the research (technique of data analysis), with instruments of research (technique of questionnaire composition).

Sociological research can be defined as a system of logical consequent methodological and organizational-technical procedures that are related to each other by means of single aim - to get liable knowledge (data) about studied phenomena or process, about tendencies and contradictions of their development to be able to use these knowledge (data) in the practice of governing of different spheres of social vital activity.

Sociological research is a scientific process of development of new sociological knowledge on the basis of theoretical or empirical data; it is one of the types of cognitive activity of sociologist.

Depending on the level of knowledge sociological researches are divided into theoretical and empirical. The problem of relation of theoretical and empirical aspect in scientific cognition includes two aspects -functional and genetic.

Functional aspect is related to the ratio of developed theoretical apparatus of the science and its empirical basis. Viewing of the question in such an aspect supposes the existence of linking elements between the apparatus of theory and data of observation and experiment, finding out ways of empirical checking of theoretical dogmas, etc. It possible when theoretical level of scientific knowledge is already formed and we are talking about grounding of its relation to empirical level. The relation of theoretical aspect to empirical aspect is the most important motive factor of the further development of the very theoretical apparatus of the science. Theoretical level of the science is presented as an element of developing structure.

Genetic aspect of the problem of relation of theoretical and empirical knowledge in the science reflects formation of theoretical apparatus, scientific theory, transition from empirical stage of the science to its theoretical one.

Sociological knowledge is characterized by two functions: function of explanation of social reality and function of social reality change. Division of sociology into theoretical and empirical one is related to the levels of knowledge (theoretical and empirical) in sociology; division of sociology into fundamental and applied is related to orientation of sociology at its own scientific or practical tasks.

Empiric research can be held in the measures of fundamental and applied sociology. If the aim of such a research is to create a theory it refers to fundamental sociology according to the type of its orientation. If the aim of the research is to develop practical recommendations it refers to applied sociology. The research being empiric according ю the level of received knowledge can be applied according to the character of the given task, which concludes in reality transformation. The same can be said in reference to theoretical researches (according to the level of knowledge).

Applied researches do not comprise a special level. They are the very same theoretical and empiric researches (according to the level of knowledge) but with applied orientation. Empiric sociological researches are different from traditional research activity in organizational structure and character of research tasks. Including elements of theoretical knowledge that are necessary for primary analysis of studied social object and generalization of received data, sociological research demands the ability to solve a large quantity of organizational problems and supposes professional skills in specific research methods of receiving of primary sociological information (questionnaire, interview), mathematical methods of its development and analysis.

Correct sociological research demands not only mastering of specific sum of knowledge and skills but also large professional experience. According to the character of received knowledge researches are divided into methodological (knowledge about knowledge) and non-methodological (knowledge about subject). Methodological knowledge is the result of methodological research, i.e. knowledge not aboui the subject of sociology but the means of study of this subject (methods and procedures). Methodological researches refer to any level of knowledge and are held in the fields of both fundamental and applied sociology.

There are not only scientific or applied researches in sociology but also mixed ones that solve not only scientific but also practical tasks. Regardless of the fact whether the research is held on theoretical or empirical levels of knowledge or on both of them, is it only scientific or applied one, as a rule it includes solving of methodological problems.

It is necessary to mention that any sociological research consists of three basic stages, which of them can present an independent research.

First stage - methodological one - is related to the development of the program of research on the basis of existing knowledge and methods or newly forming especially for this research knowledge and methods. Questions referring to application of general scientific methods or methods can be solved at this stage. Theoretical and empiric knowledge fulfils methodological function on this stage.

Second stage - empiric one - is related to receiving of empiric knowledge. First of all it is a field research, work at the object, collection of sociological information, its analysis. This work can be resulted in empiric knowledge (statistical data, classification) that will enable not only to create theoretical knowledge on its basis but also to formulate practical recommendations.

Third stage - theoretical one - is related to the receiving of theoretical knowledge, creation, for instance, of typology, formation and development of sociological theories. It is quite possible to have just one theoretical research grounded on the use of already existing empirical knowledge without holding of special empiric research for formation of practical recommendations.

It is necessary to distinguish sociological and social researches. Sociological researches are totally dedicated to the study of laws and regularities of functioning and development of different social communities, character and ways of interrelation of people, their common activity. Social researches on the contrary to sociological ones study forms of social laws and regularities display and their mechanisms, concrete forms and conditions of social interaction - economical, political, demographic, etc., i.e. they study social aspect - people's interaction in the conditions of the specific subject (economy, politics, population). Social researches are complex ones and are held on the edge of sciences, i.e. they are socio-economical, socio-political, socio-psychological and other researches.

Concrete kind of sociological research is always defined by the character of the given tasks and aims. According to this character there are three kinds of sociological research: investigating, descriptive and analytical.

Investigating research that is often called pilot research solves tasks that are rather restricted in their content. It embodies as a rule small integrities and is based on simplifies and compressed instruments. Given type of research is used as a rule for primary investigation of a certain process or phenomenon. The need in such a stage occurs when the problem is noi studied well enough or is not studied at all. For instance this type of research is applied for receiving of additional information about subject and object, for correction of hypothesis and tasks, instruments and measures of investigated integrity in deep research and for revelation of difficulties that can appear in the further work. Investigating research is a supplier of operative data.

Descriptive research is a more complicated type of sociological analysis that enables to form reliably integral idea of the studied phenomenon or process, its structural elements. Realization and registration of such information help to have better understanding of the situation, to ground deeper and to rationally define means, forms and methods of governing social processes. Given type of research is held according to complete specifically developed program on the basis of methodically approbated instruments. Its methodological equipment enables to group and classify elements according to these or that characteristics that are defined as essential in the context of studied problem. Descriptive research is applied when a comparatively large group of people with different characteristics performs functions of the object of research. They can be stuff of a large firm or enterprise where people of different professions and age categories work. They have different job seniority, level of education, marital status, etc. In such situations defining of relatively homogenous groups makes it possible to make their evaluation, comparison of interesting characteristics and to find out absence or presence of links between them.

Analytical sociological research has the deepest study of phenomenon as its aim. It has not only to describe the structure but also to find out defining qualitative and quantitative parameters. That is why this method is of great scientific and practical importance While descriptive research we find out whether there is a relation between characteristics of the studied phenomenon, during the analytical research we find out whether the relation that v/as noticed previously has casual character. For instance, if in the first case we notice the relation between satisfaction of the content of labor and its efficiency, in the second case we view whether the content of labor is the main reason, i.e. factor, that influences level of labor efficiency.

As far as the reality disables us to call any "pure" factor defining features of labor activity because almost in every analytical research a set of factors is studied, factors that are main and secondary, elc. are distinguished.

It is necessary to remember that preparation to analytical research demands great time, accurate program and instruments. This is the significant feature of analytical research. It differs from the mentioned above types of research in difficulty, content of its preparatory stage and stage of primary information collection, approach ю analysis, generalization and explanation of received results.

There are following types of sociological researches grouped according to different factors:

1. According to the character of knowledge:

1. methodological;

2. non-methodological.

2. According to the level of knowledge:

(1) theoretical;

(2) empirical.

3. According to orientation of research:

1. fundamental;

2. applied.

4. According to the subject of research:

1. sociological;

2. complex (social-economical, social-political, social-psychological, etc)

5. According to the character of aims and tasks of research:

1. investigating;

2. descriptive;

3. analytical.

6. According to the dynamics of the object of research:

1. single;

2. repeated.

7. Stages of research:

1. methodological;

2. empirical:

3. theoretical.

8. Orientation of research concerning its the subject and object:

1. social groups;

2. social institutions;

3. social organizations;

4. sociology of labor;

5. sociology of education;

6. sociology of sport;

7. sociology of business;

8. sociology of management, etc.

Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purposes of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. What is the relationship between sociological theory and research? The relationship between theory and research has been referred to as a continuous cycle.

Not all sociologists conduct research in the same manner. Some researchers primarily engage in quantitative research whereas others engage in qualitative research. With quantitative research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically. Quantitative research typically emphasizes complex statistical techniques. With qualitative research, interpretive description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

The "Conventional" Research Model. Research designs are tailored to the specific problem being investigated and the focus of the researcher. Both quantitative research and qualitative research contribute to our knowledge of society and human social interaction. We will now trace the steps in the "conventional" research process, which focuses on deduction and quantitative research. Then we will contrast them with an alternative approach that em­phasizes induction and qualitative research.

1. Select and define the research problem.

2. Review previous research.

3. Formulate the hypothesis (if applicable). You may formulate a hypothesis—a statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables. A variable is any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another. The most fundamental relationship in a hypothesis is between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. The independent variable is presumed to be the cause of the relationship; the dependent variable is assumed to be caused by the independent variable(s).

Not all social research makes use of hypotheses. If you plan to conduct an explanatory study (showing a cause-and-effect relationship), you likely will want to formulate one or more hypotheses to test theories. If you plan to conduct a descriptive study, however, you will be less likely to do so, since you may desire only to describe social reality or provide facts.

4. Develop the research design. You must determine the unit of analysis to be used in the study. A unit of analysis is what or whom is being studied. In social science research, individuals, social groups (such as families, cities, or geographic regions), organizations (such as clubs, labor unions, or political parties), and social artifacts (such as books, paintings, or weddings) may be units of analysis.

5. Collect and analyze the data. You must decide what population will be observed or questioned and then carefully select a sample. A sample is the people who are selected from the population to be studied; the sample should accurately represent the larger population. A representaiive sample is a selection from a larger population that has the essential characteristics of the total population. For example, if you interviewed five students selected haphazardly from your sociology class, they would not be representative of your school's total student body. By contrast, if you selected five students from the total student body by a random sample, they would be closer to being representative (although a random sample of five students would be too small to yield much useful data). Validity and reliability may be problems in research. Validity is the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. A recurring issue in studies that analyze the relationship between religious beliefs and suicide is whether "church membership" is an accurate indicator of a person's religious beliefs. One person may be very religious yet not belong to a specific church; another person may be a member of a church yet not hold very deep religious beliefs. Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time. Sociologists have found that different interviewers get different answers from the people being interviewed. Once you have collected your data, it must be analyzed. Analysis is the process through which data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn. Sociologists use many techniques to analyze data. 6. Draw conclusions and report the findings. After analyzing the data, your first step in drawing conclusions is to return to your hypothesis or research objective to clarify how the data relate both to the hypothesis and to the larger issues being addressed. At this stage, you note the limitations of the study, such as problems with the sample, the influence of variables over which you had no control, or variables that your study was unable to measure.

Reporting the findings is the final stage. The report generally includes a review of each step taken in the research process in order to make the study available for replication — the repetition of the research in substantially the same way that it was originally conducted. Social scientists generally present their findings in papers at professional meetings and publish them in technical journals and books.

We have traced the steps in the "conventional" research process (based on deduction and quantitative research). But what steps might be taken in an alternative approach based on induction and qualitative research?