- •Plates
- •Maps
- •Notes on contributors
- •Acknowledgements
- •Note on the text
- •Abbreviations in notes and bibliography
- •archive collections and volumes of laws
- •journals
- •other abbreviations
- •Chronology
- •Introduction
- •1 Russia as empire and periphery
- •2 Managing empire: tsarist nationalities policy
- •Nationalities before Peter
- •Ukraine under Catherine
- •Partitions of Poland
- •Jewish question
- •Nicholas I
- •Expansion in the Caucasus and Central Asia
- •Baltic Provinces and Finland
- •Central Asia and Muslims
- •The Caucasus
- •The 1905 Revolution and after
- •First World War
- •3 Geographies of imperial identity
- •Introduction
- •Russia as a European empire
- •Russia as an anti-European empire
- •Russia as a national empire
- •4 Russian culture in the eighteenth century
- •Russia and the West: ‘catching up’
- •The reign of Peter I (1682–1725)
- •From Catherine I to Peter III: 1725–1762
- •Catherine the Great: 1762–1796
- •Conclusion
- •5 Russian culture: 1801–1917
- •Russian culture comes of age
- •Russian culture under Alexander II (1855–1881)
- •Russian culture under Alexander III (1881–1894)
- •Russian Culture Under Nicholas II (1894–1917)
- •6 Russian political thought, 1700–1917
- •From Muscovy to the Early Enlightenment: the problem of resistance to ungodly rulers
- •Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment: civic virtue, absolutism and liberty
- •In the French Revolution’s shadow: conservatism, constitutionalism and republicanism
- •National identity, representative government and the market
- •7 Russia and the legacy of 1812
- •Russian culture and society before 1812
- •The 1812 war and Russian nationalism
- •The war and Russian political culture
- •1812 and the problem of social stability
- •The legacy of the war
- •8 Ukrainians and Poles
- •9 The Jews
- •The pre-partition period
- •Early encounters
- •Into the whirlwind
- •10 Islam in the Russian Empire
- •11 The elites
- •12 The groups between: raznochintsy, intelligentsia, professionals
- •13 Nizhnii Novgorod in the nineteenth century: portrait of a city
- •Topography
- •Rhythms
- •People
- •Administration and institutions
- •Civic and cultural life
- •14 Russian Orthodoxy: Church, people and politics in Imperial Russia
- •Institutionalising Orthodoxy
- •The clergy
- •Episcopate
- •Monastic (‘black’) clergy
- •Secular (‘white’) clergy
- •Believers
- •Worldly teachings: from ‘reciprocity’ to social Orthodoxy
- •Orthodoxy in the Russian prerevolution
- •15 Women, the family and public life
- •The Petrine revolution and its consequences
- •Outside the circle of privilege
- •The reform era
- •1905 and after
- •16 Gender and the legal order in Imperial Russia
- •Noblewomen, inheritance, and the control of property
- •Gender conventions and the law of property in the eighteenth century
- •Transactions between husband and wife
- •Unlimited obedience: women and family law
- •Gender in criminal law
- •Conclusion
- •17 Law, the judicial system and the legal profession
- •Reform
- •The reformed judicial system and the peasants
- •Justice and empire
- •The reform of the reform
- •The justice system as a substitute constitution
- •18 Peasants and agriculture
- •19 The Russian economy and banking system
- •Introduction
- •The Catherine system
- •The era of Great Reforms
- •The policy of forced industrial development
- •Financial and commercial policy at the beginning of the twentieth century
- •Conclusion
- •20 Central government
- •Introduction
- •Subordinate organs (podchinennye organy)
- •Ministerial government
- •Supreme organs (Verkhovnye organy)
- •Autocrat and autocracy
- •Post 1905
- •Modernisation from above
- •21 Provincial and local government
- •Introduction
- •The Centre and the provinces
- •The operation of local administration
- •Corporate institutions
- •‘All-estate’ institutions
- •A local bureaucracy?
- •Epilogue
- •23 Peter the Great and the Northern War
- •24 Russian foreign policy, 1725–1815
- •Era of palace revolutions
- •Catherine II
- •The metamorphosis of the 1790s
- •Alexander I
- •Conclusion
- •25 The imperial army
- •Understanding Russian military success, 1700–1825
- •Accounting for Russian military failure, 1854–1917
- •Conclusion: the World War
- •26 Russian foreign policy: 1815–1917
- •From Holy Alliance to Crimean isolation
- •Recueillement
- •Decline and fall
- •The character of tsarist diplomacy
- •27 The navy in 1900: imperialism, technology and class war
- •28 The reign of Alexander II: a watershed?
- •The reasons and preconditions for the abolition of serfdom
- •The programme and conception of the reformers, the legislation of 19 February 1861 and the other Great Reforms
- •Legislation and life: the fate of the Great Reforms and the fate of the reformers
- •29 Russian workers and revolution
- •30 Police and revolutionaries
- •31 War and revolution, 1914–1917
- •The proximate causes of February 1917
- •Relative economic backwardness as a cause?
- •The Petrograd garrison and its mutiny
- •The army command and the February Revolution
- •The formation of the Progressive Bloc and the Provisional Government
- •Bibliography
Chronology
1689 |
overthrow of regency of Tsarevna Sophia |
1697–8 |
Peter I in Western Europe |
1700 |
Great Northern War begins with Sweden |
1703 |
foundation of Saint Petersburg |
1709 |
Battle of Poltava: defeat of Swedes and Ukrainian Hetman |
|
Mazepa |
1711 |
establishment of Senate |
1717 |
formation of administrative colleges |
1721 |
foundation of the Holy Synod: disappearance of the |
|
patriarchate |
1721 |
Treaty of Nystadt ends Great Northern War: Baltic |
|
provinces gained |
1722 |
creation of Table of Ranks |
1725 |
foundation of Academy of Sciences |
1725 |
death of Peter I. Accession of Catherine I |
1727 |
death of Catherine I. Accession of Peter II |
1730 |
death of Peter II. Accession of Anna. Failed attempt to limit |
|
autocracy |
1740 |
death of Anna. Accession of Ivan VI |
1741 |
overthrow of Ivan VI. Accession of Elizabeth |
1753 |
abolition of internal customs duties |
1754 |
foundation of Moscow University |
1755 |
outbreak of Seven Years War |
1761 |
death of Elizabeth. Accession of Peter III |
1762 |
‘emancipation’ of the nobility from compulsory state service |
1762 |
overthrow of Peter III. Accession of Catherine II |
1765 |
death of Lomonosov |
1767 |
Catherine II’s Nakaz (Instruction) and Legislative |
|
Commission |
xx
|
Chronology |
1768 |
war with Ottoman Empire |
1773 |
beginning of Pugachev revolt |
1774 |
Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji: victory over Ottomans |
1775 |
reform of provincial administration |
1783 |
annexation of Crimea |
1785 |
charter of the nobility |
1790 |
publication of Radishchev’s Journey from St Petersburg to |
|
Moscow |
1795 |
final partition of Poland |
1796 |
death of Catherine II. Accession of Paul I |
1797 |
new succession law: male primogeniture established |
1801 |
overthrow of Paul I. Accession of Alexander I |
1802 |
creation of ministries |
1804 |
university statute |
1807 |
Treaty of Tilsit |
1810 |
creation of State Council |
1811 |
Karamzin’s ‘Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia’ |
1812 |
defeat of Napoleon’s invasion |
1814 |
Russian army enters Paris |
1815 |
constitution for Russian Kingdom of Poland issued |
1825 |
death of Alexander I. Accession of Nicholas I. Decembrist |
|
revolt |
1826 |
foundation of Third Section |
1830–1 |
rebellion in Poland |
1833 |
Code of Laws (Svod zakonov) issued |
1836 |
first performance of Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar |
1836 |
Chaadaev’s First Philosophical Letter |
1837 |
death of Pushkin |
1847–52 |
publication of Turgenev’s Zapiski okhotnika (A Huntsman’s |
|
Sketches) |
1854 |
French, British and Ottomans invade Crimea |
1855 |
death of Nicholas I. Accession of Alexander II |
1856 |
Treaty of Paris ends Crimean War |
1861 |
emancipation of the serfs |
1862 |
foundation of Saint Petersburg Conservatoire |
1863 |
rebellion in Poland |
1864 |
local government (zemstvo) and judicial reforms introduced |
1865–6 |
publication begins of Tolstoy’s Voina i mir (War and Peace) |
1866 |
Karakozov’s attempt to assassinate Alexander II |
xxi
|
Chronology |
1866 |
foundation of Moscow Conservatoire |
1866 |
publication of Dostoevsky’s Prestuplenie i nakazanie (Crime |
|
and Punishment) |
1874 |
introduction of universal military service |
1874 |
first performance of Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov |
1875 |
the ‘To the People’ movement goes on trial |
1877–8 |
war with Ottoman Empire. Treaty of Berlin |
1878 |
formation of ‘Land and Freedom’ revolutionary group |
1880 |
Loris-Melikov appointed to head government |
1880 |
publication of Dostoevsky’s Brat’ia Karamazovy (The Brothers |
|
Karamazov) |
1881 |
assassination of Alexander II. Accession of Alexander III |
1881 |
introduction of law on ‘states of emergency’ |
1884 |
Plekhanov publishes Nashi raznoglasiia (Our Differences) |
1889 |
introduction of Land Captains |
1891 |
construction of Trans-Siberian railway begins |
1894 |
Franco-Russian alliance ratified |
1894 |
death of Alexander III. Accession of Nicholas II |
1898 |
first congress of the Social Democratic party |
1899 |
foundation of journal Mir iskusstva (World of Art) |
1901 |
formation of the Socialist Revolutionary party |
1902 |
Lenin publishes Chto delat’? (What Is to Be Done?) |
1903 |
Kishinev pogrom |
1904 |
outbreak of war with Japan |
1904 |
assassination of Plehve: Sviatopolk-Mirsky’s ‘thaw’ begins |
1905 |
‘Bloody Sunday’ ushers in two years of revolution |
1905 |
defeats at battles of Mukden and Tsushima |
1905 |
Treaty of Portsmouth (September) ends war with Japan |
1905 |
October 17 Manifesto promises a constitution |
1906 |
First Duma (parliament) meets and is dissolved |
1906 |
Stolypin heads government: agrarian reforms begin |
1907 |
entente with Britain |
1907–12 |
Third Duma in session |
1910 |
death of L. N. Tolstoy |
1911 |
Western Zemstvo crisis |
1911 |
assassination of Stolypin |
1912 |
Lena goldfields shootings: worker radicalism re-emerges |
1913 |
first performance of Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring |
1914 |
outbreak of First World War |
xxii
|
Chronology |
1915 |
Nicholas II assumes supreme command and dismisses |
|
‘liberal’ ministers |
1916 |
first performance of Rachmaninov’s Vespers (vsenochnaia) |
1916 |
Brusilov offensive |
1917 |
overthrow of monarchy in ‘February Revolution’ |
xxiii
The provinces and population of Russia in 1724
White
Sea
Archangel
Gu
lf
of
Finland
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St Petersburg |
B |
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Novgorod |
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Pskov |
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Tver |
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G R U
A R C H A N G E L
D
v i na
S I B E R I A
Vologda |
Viatka |
Perm |
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Kostroma |
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a |
Kazan |
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Moscow |
Nizhnii |
Volg |
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A Z A N |
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Novgorod |
Smolensk |
O |
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MOSCOW |
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Riazan |
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Tula |
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Orel |
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Tambov |
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A Z O V |
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Chernigov |
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r |
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S A |
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Azov |
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B l a c k |
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COSSACKS |
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S e a |
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Russia's frontiers by 1725
Provinces established by Peter the Great
Area with over 20 inhabitants in every square verst (One verst = two-thirds of a mile)
Area with between 10 and 20 inhabitants per square verst
Russian territory with less than 10 inhabitants per square verst is not shaded
Simbirsk
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Penza |
Samara |
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K |
S |
ra |
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U |
l |
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C |
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e
a
0 |
300 miles |
Orenburg
Map 1. The provinces and population of Russia in 1724. Used with permission from The Routledge Atlas of Russian History by Martin Gilbert.
xxiv
Serfs in 1860
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GERMANY VILNA
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TAMBOV
SARATOV
KURSK
AUSTRIAHUNGARY
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KIEV |
P |
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VORONEZH |
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KHARKOV |
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KATERINOSLAV |
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ROMANIA
KUBAN
B l a c k |
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KUTAIS |
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TIFLIS |
T U R K E Y |
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C
a
s
p
i a
n
S
e
a
Provinces where over half of the peasants were serfs
Provinces where 36% to 55% of the peasants were serfs
Provinces where 16% to 35% of the peasants were serfs
P E R S I A
0 |
200 miles |
Map 2. Serfs in 1860. Used with permission from The Routledge Atlas of Russian History by Martin Gilbert.
xxv
White
Sea
Archangel
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B l a c k S e a |
I I I I I I |
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POTI |
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BATUM |
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The Russian frontier 1815–1914
l l l I I I Railways by 1900. Many of these were
financed by French money. There was also high French investment in Russia's industrial development, especially in southern Russia.
Important manufacturing centres
Heavy industry, principally iron, steel and metalworks.
Textiles
Manufactured food, principally sugar
l I
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BAKU
Areas with the greatest influx of workers |
Russian industry by 1900 |
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from other regions |
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POTI Ports with flourishing import and export |
0 |
200 miles |
trades by 1900 |
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I
I
Map 3. Russian industry by 1900. Used with permission from The Routledge Atlas of Russian History by Martin Gilbert.
xxvi
The provinces and population of
European Russia in 1900
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White |
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NORWAY |
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ARCHANGEL |
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FINLAND |
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SWEDEN |
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VOLOGDA |
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GERMANY
POLISH
PROVINCES
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PERM
UFA
ORENBURG
AUSTRIAHUNGARY
ROMANIA
|
KIEV |
P |
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VORONEZH |
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P |
O |
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LT |
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KHARKOV |
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KHERSON |
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KUBAN STAVROPOL |
B l a c k |
S |
|
e |
|
a |
T U R K E Y |
|
MAIN NATIONAL & ETHNIC GROUPS IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA IN 1900
Russians |
55 million |
Ukrainians |
22 million |
Poles |
8 million |
White Russians |
6 million |
Jews |
5 million |
Balts |
4 million |
Caucasians |
3 million |
Germans |
2 million |
|
C |
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a |
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s |
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TEREK |
p |
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i |
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a |
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TRANS-CAUCASIAN |
S |
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PROVINCES |
|
e |
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a |
P E R S I A
0 |
200 miles |
Map 4. The provinces and population of European Russia in 1900. Used with permission from The Routledge Atlas of Russian History by Martin Gilbert.
xxvii
Map 5. The Russian Empire (1913). From Archie Brown, Michael Kaser, and G. S. Smith (eds.) Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia 1982.