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SUMMARY

This book presents the first, since the book by P.P. Efimenko lappeared, in Russian archaeological science attempt to create a manual and generalizing reference book on the Paleolithic Period. The specific character of the book is conditioned by the research interests of the audience it is addressed to: in the first instance to students and researchers of the Siberian Paleolithic. Thus the description of early cultures of northern and eastern Asia and the Pacific Rim is the main focus of interest. At the same time, a general idea about the classical European scheme of succession in the evolution of Paleolithic cultures is proposed. The knowledge of it is essential for every researcher engaged in Paleolithic studies whatever territory he works at. The authors tried to combine a classical typological approach on the one hand, and the results obtained in modern trends of the science (ethnoarchaeology, geoarchaeology, site catchment analysis, technological analysis, etc.) on the other.

The book consists of two parts. The first one gives an idea about the subject of the Paleolithic archaeology, its place in a general framework of archaeological science and the Humanities. The history of investigation of the Old Stone Age record, main modern trends and schools in Paleolithic science are elucidated. The essentials of Quaternary geology, geochronology and palcogeography, main types of sites and methods of their studying, technological and typological analysis of lithic and bone industries are given. The problems of social and cultural reconstruction of the Paleolithic societies, correlation

of biological and cultural shifts in the process of anthropogeny are also touched upon.

In the second part of the book a systematic description of evolution of the Paleolithic cultures with the emphasis made upon the Siberian antiquities is' presented. The book is supplemented by a list of references to main Russian and foreign publications applicable.

Paleolithic studies occupy a special place among other branches of archaeology. It is in the junction of natural sciences and the Humanities. It is unique because of the special role geological dating of sites and paleoen­vironmental events plays in it. All main aspects of human society (art, religion, social structures, etc.) originated during the Paleolithic Period. Analysis of conception of these phenomena rouses interest among philosophers, historians, ethnologists, anthropologists for Paleolithic. A narrowness of source base available dictates the need for elaboration of sophisticated methods of field and laboratory study, as well as issues of typology and technology of lithics with a complicated special jargon in use. Another peculiarity of our discipline is an international character of research process conditioned by similarity in appearance of Paleolithic cultures on vast territories, and urge towards tracing the character of initial peopling and routes of migrations of Paleolithic people.

Born in the XIX century and stimulated by the evolutionary ideas, the Paleolithic archaeology has proceeded along the path of changing of theoretical concepts and methodological approaches. The current stage of the world Paleolithic studies is characterized by intensive interaction and cooperation between national schools (first and foremost the French and the Anglo­American ones). Russian archaeology of Paleolithic occupies a special place. During last decades

it has been mainly focused on the analysis of spatial patterns of ancient culture — from micro­arias to a comparison in a global scale. The achievements of Soviet prehistorians of the 1930s in studying of Paleolithic dwellings and settlements, and the method of use­wear analysis of S.A. Semenov are generally recognized. The history of Paleolithic studies of Siberia is now entering its second century. The investigations are presently carried out by several regional centers coordinated by the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Novosibirsk).

The archaeology of Paleolithic is inseparably linked with the Quaternary studies. The book gives general idea about the timing and character of subdivisions of Quaternary, paleoclimatic changes and main stratigraphic schemes. The problem of correlation of the oxygen­isotope scale of ShackletonOpdyke with continental paleogeographical events is discussed. Succession of faunal complexes is presented, as well as the main geomorphological notions and principal genetic types of continental sediments which are significant to understand the character of the Paleolithic record. Particular attention has been given to the Quaternary history of Siberia, the paleogeography of which left its mark on the character of the demographics of this territory in ancient times. Development of ice sheets and pond basins in Western Siberia, and alpine­valley glaciers in mountain regions of southern Siberia has been noted.

Complex paleoenvironmental analysis carried out by the experts in different disciplines constitutes an integral part of Paleolithic study. The book contains a brief description of the main methods for studying the Quaternary sediments and paleosoils. Basic principles of stratigraphic correlation, fundamentals of paleontology and

paleobotany, different techniques of absolute dating are also discussed.

Paleolithic sites vary in character and geological setting. There are sites with disturbed cultural horizon (they are especially abundant in arid and semiarid regions), sites with culture­bearing strata lying in alluvial and subaerial deposits. Open sites occur in river valleys, where they are associated either with cover and diluvial loams and loess or with fluvial sands and sandy loams forming terraces above a floodplain. Sites of the latter type are wide­spread in northern Asia. They are usually characterized by thin cultural horizons and are highly multi­layered. Description of main types of Paleolithic sites in carstic cavities (rock­shelters, grottos, caves) is also presented.

Techniques of field study with regard to peculiarities of Siberian sites are stated. Recommendations for reconnaissance survey and some rules of recording of newly discovered sites are given. In description of methods for studying the sites with disturbed cultural layer a special emphasis has been placed on planimetric analysis. Some problems of choosing the optimum place for excavation and the form of excavation area are discussed. Peculiarities of excavation of cave sites are pointed out: suspended grid system, orientation of sections, etc. There are also some recommendations for laboratory registration and treatment of artifacts and linear drawing of lithics.

A section concerning the analysis of a lithic and bone industry takes central place in the framework of the first part of the book. One can find here description of main types of raw material used by prehistoric man, criteria for distinguishing cultural and natural stone knapping, account of different techniques of flaking, etc. Main varieties of cores, flakes, blanks and types of retouch are characterized. Proceeding from the specific features of the Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic lithic assemblages of Siberia, the principal morphological variants of the main tool categories (sidescrapers, endscrapers, chisel­like tools, burins, borers, points, retouched blades, knives, foliates, backed bladelets, etc.), as well as some rare varieties of lithic implements are considered. In addition to Russian denominations, one can find English and French terms relevant to the lithic typology. Main types of tools made of ivory, antler and bone (hafts, points,

harpoons, smoothers, awls, needles, etc.) are enumerated.

In addition to the typological method, modern lithic studies attach im­ portance to the technological analysis, i.e. the reconstruction of the so called operational chains : successive operations of prehistoric man in the process of

making, using and remodifying of artifacts. As it was established, stone tools were often morphologically altered while passing through the reduction sequence. For the reconstruction of the manufacturing process and tool functions the use­wear analysis and experiments could serve as an auxiliary means. Pla­ nigraphic analysis of spatial distribution of lithics, bones and features with refitting and tracing the relations between conjoinable pieces is vital for the reconstruction of sites. Various statistical techniques ­ from easily counted indices to sophisticated methods of multivariate statistics (cluster, factor, prin­ cipal components analyses) ­ are widely used for examining and comparative analysis of sizable collections. In modern foreign archaeology an emphasis is shifting from statistical classification to wide introduction of computer­based information storage and retrieval techniques in field and laboratory studies of different kinds.

Some general issues of reconstruction and interpretation of Paleolithic are discussed further. The main point of the Paleolithic science is considered as identification of different factors (cultural, functional, research) influenced variability of lithic assemblages. Several functional types of sites (workshops, hunting camps, kill­and­ butchering sites, base camps) could be isolated. For interpretation of spatial­temporal groups of similar monuments such theoretical notions as an archaeological culture, way of development, entity, cultural area, zone, etc. are used. On the base of comparison of prehistoric evidence with ethnographic data concerning regularities in structure of hunting­gathering communities, it is conceivable to isolate some general characteristics of social structure and subsistence economy of the Late Paleolithic hunters in northern Eurasia.

During Paleolithic the formation of anatomically modern humans proceeded. The book contains a brief discussion of principal problems of anthropogeny, main lines and stages of the evolution of hominidae (Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens sapiens). Human biological types are correlated with lithic complexes. The hypotheses about the brain evolution and the development of modern human behavioral traits are mentioned. The Neanderthal remains are known from the Siberian Paleolithic record (teeth from the Denisova and Okladnikov caves), as well as the ones of the Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens (the double children burial from

Malta and the skull fragment from Afontova Gora II).

The earliest evidence of human activity was identified in the East African Rift Zone (the localities of West Gona, Ото dated at 2—2.5 mln. yr). The eponymic sites of the Olduvai Gorge are principal for understanding the evolution of the earliest industries. There the development of the Oldowan industries later on paralleled the Early Acheulian ones can be traced. The book gives a brief description of main varieties of the European Early Paleolithic cultures: Acheulian with bifaces, flake and pebble tool industries.

Though the majority of the conjectural pre­Mousterian sites known in Siberia are questionable (Ulalinka, Filimoshki), evidence of the initial human colonization of northern Asia starting with Middle Pleistocene is revealed in different regions (the Mokhovo I site in the Kuzbass is attributed to the Mindel­Riss Interglacial). Pebble tool industries (Diring) appear to coexist with the Acheulian (Torgalyk).

Presently the Early Paleolithic sites are well known in different regions of eastern and central Asia. The Acheulian localities containing bifaces and pebble industries have been discovered in Mongolia. There are some occurrences of bifaces of distinctive morphology in China and Korea (Koehe, Ting­tsun, Chongokni and others), though the pebble tool industries seem to dominate in eastern Asia. The earliest sites in Japan also date back to the Acheulian epoch.

Middle Paleolithic is characterized by further diversification of industries based on manufacturing of standard blanks. The books contains a description of the main varieties of the classical Mousterian of south­western France, some industries of Central and Eastern Europe. Complication of site structure, where evidence of artificial constructions could sometimes be identified, appearance of the first burials and scarce non­utilitarian objects was observed.

The Mousterian industries of Siberia fall within the time span between the Kazantsevian Interglacial and the Karginian period (ca. 33 000—44 000 yr B.P.). Data accumulated during the exploration of the cave sites in the Altai allow to put forward the hypothesis about the coexistence of several variants of the Mousterian: the Levallois­Mousterian (Strashnaya and Dvuglazka caves), the Typical Mousterian (Denisova Cave), the Special Typical Mousterian enriched with canted sidescrapers (Okladnikov Cave). There are also some obscure variants of non­Levallois Mousterian (Kaminnaya Cave, Tiumechin II), and the Mousteroid industries with foliated bifaces (Ust­Karakol I, Mokhovo II).

The Siberian Mousterian is a part of the Mousterian Culture of northern Eurasia. The Levallois­Mousterian sites, including the stratified ones, have been reported from Mongolia (Orkhon I, VII; Tsagan­Agui). The Middle Paleolithic of China, Korea and Japan shows a distinct pattern and could not be assigned to Mousterian sensu stricto.

The Middle­to­Upper Paleolithic transition is considered as the most significant boundary in prehistory, associated with the dispersal of anatomically modern humans (though their origin in Africa could probably be assigned to a much earlier period). The book gives a description of the key succession of the Upper Paleolithic cultures in south­ western France and the most striking episodes of the complicated Upper Paleolithic history of northern, central and eastern Europe. The Upper Paleolithic residential sites yielded structural features of different kinds (hearths, pits, concentrations of chipped stones, dwelling structures and burials of many types). Diversity of adornments and ornamental patterns reflects a complicated spiritual life of the Upper Paleolithic man. This epoch evidenced the first experiments with earthenware which can be also traced in Siberia (the Maininskaya site). A phenomenon of the earliest art is the most remarkable development of Upper Paleolithic. It is represented by both transportable art objects and

cave paintings.

The beginning of Upper Paleolithic in Siberia was associated to the dispersal of the Epi­Levallois blade industries genetically related to the local Mousterian (the sites of Kara­Bom, Tolbaga, Arembovsky, etc.). The dates fall between 27 000 and 34 000 уг В.Р., though the recent dates from Kara­ Bom could indicate even the earlier beginning for Upper Paleolithic. During the Late Karginian­Early Sartanian time span (18 000 to 27 000 yr B.P.) these industries were replaced by the Middle Upper Paleolithic traditions of small blades (Malta, Buret, Tarachikha, and others) well comparable with the European Upper Paleolithic pattern. Final Paleolithic is characterized by the co­occurrence of archaic and Upper Paleolithic components and wide distribution of raicroblade technology (the Afontova and Kokorevo cultures in the Yenisei Basin, the Diuktai Culture in Yakutia, the Badai and Verholenskaya cultures on the Angara, etc.).

The Upper Paleolithic cultures of Mongolia, northern China and northern Japan share some features with the Siberian archaeological remains. First of all this concerns the microblade technology in its different manifestations. The Final Paleolithic of Japan shows a distinctive pattern, characterized by an early appearance of geometric microliths, arrow­heads, polished axes, and ceramics (from 12 000 yr B.P. on). During Late Paleolithic the American Continent was colonized through Beringia. Presently several sites (the Nenana Complex, Bluefish caves, Meadowcroft Rockshelter) suggest that the New World was settled starting from 13 000—14 000 yr B.P. In Final Pleistocene the Pa­leoindian cultures (Clovis, Folsom), characterized by the fluted points, dominated in North America. Synchronous assemblages from Alaska demonstrate a close resemblance to the Siberian Final Paleolithic Period and can be united with the former within the boundaries of the Paleoarctic Tradition.

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

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Деревянно Анатолий Пантелеевич Маркин Сергей Васильевич Васильев Сергей Александрович

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