- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1 Posterior Compartment
- •2.2 Anterior Compartment
- •2.3 Middle Compartment
- •2.4 Perineal Body
- •3 Compartments
- •3.1 Posterior Compartment
- •3.1.1 Connective Tissue Structures
- •3.1.2 Muscles
- •3.1.3 Reinterpreted Anatomy and Clinical Relevance
- •3.2 Anterior Compartment
- •3.2.1 Connective Tissue Structures
- •3.2.2 Muscles
- •3.2.3 Reinterpreted Anatomy and Clinical Relevance
- •3.2.4 Important Vessels, Nerves, and Lymphatics of the Anterior Compartment
- •3.3 Middle Compartment
- •3.3.1 Connective Tissue Structures
- •3.3.2 Muscles
- •3.3.3 Reinterpreted Anatomy and Clinical Relevance
- •3.3.4 Important Vessels, Nerves, and Lymphatics of the Middle Compartment
- •4 Perineal Body
- •References
- •MR and CT Techniques
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2.1 Spasmolytic Medication
- •2.3.2 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
- •2.3.3 Dynamic Contrast Enhancement
- •3 CT Technique
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Technical Disadvantages
- •3.4 Oral and Rectal Contrast
- •References
- •Uterus: Normal Findings
- •1 Introduction
- •References
- •1 Clinical Background
- •1.1 Epidemiology
- •1.2 Clinical Presentation
- •1.3 Embryology
- •1.4 Pathology
- •2 Imaging
- •2.1 Technique
- •2.2.1 Class I Anomalies: Dysgenesis
- •2.2.2 Class II Anomalies: Unicornuate Uterus
- •2.2.3 Class III Anomalies: Uterus Didelphys
- •2.2.4 Class IV Anomalies: Bicornuate Uterus
- •2.2.5 Class V Anomalies: Septate Uterus
- •2.2.6 Class VI Anomalies: Arcuate Uterus
- •2.2.7 Class VII Anomalies
- •References
- •Benign Uterine Lesions
- •1 Background
- •1.1 Uterine Leiomyomas
- •1.1.1 Epidemiology
- •1.1.2 Pathogenesis
- •1.1.3 Histopathology
- •1.1.4 Clinical Presentation
- •1.1.5 Therapy
- •1.1.5.1 Indications
- •1.1.5.2 Medical Therapy and Ablation
- •1.1.5.3 Surgical Therapy
- •1.1.5.4 Uterine Artery Embolization (UAE)
- •1.1.5.5 Magnetic Resonance-Guided Focused Ultrasound
- •2 Adenomyosis of the Uterus
- •2.1 Epidemiology
- •2.2 Pathogenesis
- •2.3 Histopathology
- •2.4 Clinical Presentation
- •2.5 Therapy
- •3 Imaging
- •3.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- •3.2.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Technique
- •3.2.2 MR Appearance of Uterine Leiomyomas
- •3.2.3 Locations, Growth Patterns, and Imaging Characteristics
- •3.2.4 Histologic Subtypes and Forms of Degeneration
- •3.2.5 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.2.6 MR Appearance of Uterine Adenomyosis
- •3.2.7 Locations, Growth Patterns, and Imaging Characteristics
- •3.2.8 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.3 Computed Tomography
- •3.3.1 CT Technique
- •3.3.2 CT Appearance of Uterine Leiomyoma and Adenomyosis
- •3.3.3 Atypical Appearances on CT and Differential Diagnosis
- •4.1 Indications
- •4.2 Technique
- •Bibliography
- •Cervical Cancer
- •1 Background
- •1.1 Epidemiology
- •1.2 Pathogenesis
- •1.3 Screening
- •1.4 HPV Vaccination
- •1.5 Clinical Presentation
- •1.6 Histopathology
- •1.7 Staging
- •1.8 Growth Patterns
- •1.9 Treatment
- •1.9.1 Treatment of Microinvasive Cervical Cancer
- •1.9.2 Treatment of Grossly Invasive Cervical Carcinoma (FIGO IB-IVA)
- •1.9.3 Treatment of Recurrent Disease
- •1.9.4 Treatment of Cervical Cancer During Pregnancy
- •1.10 Prognosis
- •2 Imaging
- •2.1 Indications
- •2.1.1 Role of CT and MRI
- •2.2 Imaging Technique
- •2.2.2 Dynamic MRI
- •2.2.3 Coil Technique
- •2.2.4 Vaginal Opacification
- •2.3 Staging
- •2.3.1 General MR Appearance
- •2.3.2 Rare Histologic Types
- •2.3.3 Tumor Size
- •2.3.4 Local Staging
- •2.3.4.1 Stage IA
- •2.3.4.2 Stage IB
- •2.3.4.3 Stage IIA
- •2.3.4.4 Stage IIB
- •2.3.4.5 Stage IIIA
- •2.3.4.6 Stage IIIB
- •2.3.4.7 Stage IVA
- •2.3.4.8 Stage IVB
- •2.3.5 Lymph Node Staging
- •2.3.6 Distant Metastases
- •2.4 Specific Diagnostic Queries
- •2.4.1 Preoperative Imaging
- •2.4.2 Imaging Before Radiotherapy
- •2.5 Follow-Up
- •2.5.1 Findings After Surgery
- •2.5.2 Findings After Chemotherapy
- •2.5.3 Findings After Radiotherapy
- •2.5.4 Recurrent Cervical Cancer
- •2.6.1 Ultrasound
- •2.7.1 Metastasis
- •2.7.2 Malignant Melanoma
- •2.7.3 Lymphoma
- •2.8 Benign Lesions of the Cervix
- •2.8.1 Nabothian Cyst
- •2.8.2 Leiomyoma
- •2.8.3 Polyps
- •2.8.4 Rare Benign Tumors
- •2.8.5 Cervicitis
- •2.8.6 Endometriosis
- •2.8.7 Ectopic Cervical Pregnancy
- •References
- •Endometrial Cancer
- •1.1 Epidemiology
- •1.2 Pathology and Risk Factors
- •1.3 Symptoms and Diagnosis
- •2 Endometrial Cancer Staging
- •2.1 MR Protocol for Staging Endometrial Carcinoma
- •2.2.1 Stage I Disease
- •2.2.2 Stage II Disease
- •2.2.3 Stage III Disease
- •2.2.4 Stage IV Disease
- •4 Therapeutic Approaches
- •4.1 Surgery
- •4.2 Adjuvant Treatment
- •4.3 Fertility-Sparing Treatment
- •5.1 Treatment of Recurrence
- •6 Prognosis
- •References
- •Uterine Sarcomas
- •1 Epidemiology
- •2 Pathology
- •2.1 Smooth Muscle Tumours
- •2.2 Endometrial Stromal Tumours
- •3 Clinical Background
- •4 Staging
- •5 Imaging
- •5.1 Leiomyosarcoma
- •5.2.3 Undifferentiated Uterine Sarcoma
- •5.3 Adenosarcoma
- •6 Prognosis and Treatment
- •References
- •1.1 Anatomical Relationships
- •1.4 Pelvic Fluid
- •2 Developmental Anomalies
- •2.1 Congenital Abnormalities
- •2.2 Ovarian Maldescent
- •3 Ovarian Transposition
- •References
- •1 Introduction
- •4 Benign Adnexal Lesions
- •4.1.1 Physiological Ovarian Cysts: Follicular and Corpus Luteum Cysts
- •4.1.1.1 Imaging Findings in Physiological Ovarian Cysts
- •4.1.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.1.2 Paraovarian Cysts
- •4.1.2.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.1.2.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.1.3 Peritoneal Inclusion Cysts
- •4.1.3.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.1.3.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.1.4 Theca Lutein Cysts
- •4.1.4.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.1.4.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.1.5 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
- •4.1.5.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.1.5.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.2.1 Cystadenoma
- •4.2.1.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.2.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •4.2.2 Cystadenofibroma
- •4.2.2.1 Imaging Features
- •4.2.3 Mature Teratoma
- •4.2.3.1 Mature Cystic Teratoma
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •4.2.3.2 Monodermal Teratoma
- •Imaging Findings
- •4.2.4 Benign Sex Cord-Stromal Tumors
- •4.2.4.1 Fibroma and Thecoma
- •Imaging Findings
- •4.2.4.2 Sclerosing Stromal Tumor
- •Imaging Findings
- •4.2.5 Brenner Tumors
- •4.2.5.1 Imaging Findings
- •4.2.5.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •5 Functioning Ovarian Tumors
- •References
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1 Context
- •2.2.2 Indications According to Simple Rules
- •References
- •CT and MRI in Ovarian Carcinoma
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1 Familial or Hereditary Ovarian Cancers
- •3 Screening for Ovarian Cancer
- •5 Tumor Markers
- •6 Clinical Presentation
- •7 Imaging of Ovarian Cancer
- •7.1.2 Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
- •7.1.3 Ascites
- •7.3 Staging of Ovarian Cancer
- •7.3.1 Staging by CT and MRI
- •Imaging Findings According to Tumor Stages
- •Value of Imaging
- •7.3.2 Prediction of Resectability
- •7.4 Tumor Types
- •7.4.1 Epithelial Ovarian Cancer
- •High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer
- •Low-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer
- •Mucinous Epithelial Ovarian Cancer
- •Endometrioid Ovarian Carcinomas
- •Clear Cell Carcinomas
- •Imaging Findings of Epithelial Ovarian Cancers
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Borderline Tumors
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Recurrent Ovarian Cancer
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Value of Imaging
- •Malignant Germ Cell Tumors
- •Dysgerminomas
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Immature Teratomas
- •Imaging Findings
- •Malignant Transformation in Benign Teratoma
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Sex-Cord Stromal Tumors
- •Granulosa Cell Tumors
- •Imaging Findings
- •Sertoli-Leydig Cell Tumor
- •Imaging Findings
- •Ovarian Lymphoma
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •7.4.3 Ovarian Metastases
- •Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •7.5 Fallopian Tube Cancer
- •7.5.1 Imaging Findings
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •References
- •Endometriosis
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1 Sonography
- •3 MR Imaging Findings
- •References
- •Vagina and Vulva
- •1 Introduction
- •3.1 CT Appearance
- •3.2 MRI Protocol
- •3.3 MRI Appearance
- •4.1 Imperforate Hymen
- •4.2 Congenital Vaginal Septa
- •4.3 Vaginal Agenesis
- •5.1 Vaginal Cysts
- •5.1.1 Gardner Duct Cyst (Mesonephric Cyst)
- •5.1.2 Bartholin Gland Cyst
- •5.2.1 Vaginal Infections
- •5.2.1.1 Vulvar Infections
- •5.2.1.2 Vulvar Thrombophlebitis
- •5.3 Vulvar Trauma
- •5.4 Vaginal Fistula
- •5.5 Post-Radiation Changes
- •5.6 Benign Tumors
- •6.1 Vaginal Malignancies
- •6.1.1 Primary Vaginal Carcinoma
- •6.1.1.1 MRI Findings
- •6.1.1.2 Lymph Node Drainage
- •6.1.1.3 Recurrence and Complications
- •6.1.2 Non-squamous Cell Carcinomas of the Vagina
- •6.1.2.1 Adenocarcinoma
- •6.1.2.2 Melanoma
- •6.1.2.3 Sarcomas
- •6.1.2.4 Lymphoma
- •6.2 Vulvar Malignancies
- •6.2.1 Vulvar Carcinoma
- •6.2.2 Melanoma
- •6.2.3 Lymphoma
- •6.2.4 Aggressive Angiomyxoma of the Vulva
- •7 Vaginal Cuff Disease
- •7.1 MRI Findings
- •8 Foreign Bodies
- •References
- •Imaging of Lymph Nodes
- •1 Background
- •3 Technique
- •3.1.1 Intravenous Unspecific Contrast Agents
- •3.1.2 Intravenous Tissue-Specific Contrast Agents
- •References
- •1 Introduction
- •2.1.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •2.1.3 Value of Imaging
- •2.2 Pelvic Inflammatory
- •2.2.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.3 Hydropyosalpinx
- •2.3.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.3.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •2.4 Tubo-ovarian Abscess
- •2.4.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.4.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •2.4.3 Value of Imaging
- •2.5 Ovarian Torsion
- •2.5.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.5.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •2.5.3 Diagnostic Value
- •2.6 Ectopic Pregnancy
- •2.6.1 Imaging Findings
- •2.6.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •2.6.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.1 Pelvic Congestion Syndrome
- •3.1.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.1.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.1.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.2 Ovarian Vein Thrombosis
- •3.2.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.2.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.2.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.3 Appendicitis
- •3.3.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.3.2 Value of Imaging
- •3.4 Diverticulitis
- •3.4.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.4.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.4.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.5 Epiploic Appendagitis
- •3.5.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.5.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.5.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.6 Crohn’s Disease
- •3.6.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.6.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.6.3 Value of Imaging
- •3.7 Rectus Sheath Hematoma
- •3.7.1 Imaging Findings
- •3.7.2 Differential Diagnosis
- •3.7.3 Value of Imaging
- •References
- •MRI of the Pelvic Floor
- •1 Introduction
- •2 Imaging Techniques
- •3.1 Indications
- •3.2 Patient Preparation
- •3.3 Patient Instruction
- •3.4 Patient Positioning
- •3.5 Organ Opacification
- •3.6 Sequence Protocols
- •4 MR Image Analysis
- •4.1 Bony Pelvis
- •5 Typical Findings
- •5.1 Anterior Compartment
- •5.2 Middle Compartment
- •5.3 Posterior Compartment
- •5.4 Levator Ani Muscle
- •References
- •Evaluation of Infertility
- •1 Introduction
- •2 Imaging Techniques
- •2.1 Hysterosalpingography
- •2.1.1 Cycle Considerations
- •2.1.2 Technical Considerations
- •2.1.3 Side Effects and Complications
- •2.1.5 Pathological Findings
- •2.1.6 Limitations of HSG
- •2.2.1 Cycle Considerations
- •2.2.2 Technical Considerations
- •2.2.2.1 Normal and Abnormal Anatomy
- •2.2.3 Accuracy
- •2.2.4 Side Effects and Complications
- •2.2.5 Limitations of Sono-HSG
- •2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- •2.3.1 Indications
- •2.3.2 Technical Considerations
- •2.3.3 Limitations
- •3 Ovulatory Dysfunction
- •4 Pituitary Adenoma
- •5 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome
- •7 Uterine Disorders
- •7.1 Müllerian Duct Anomalies
- •7.1.1 Class I: Hypoplasia or Agenesis
- •7.1.2 Class II: Unicornuate
- •7.1.3 Class III: Didelphys
- •7.1.4 Class IV: Bicornuate
- •7.1.5 Class V: Septate
- •7.1.6 Class VI: Arcuate
- •7.1.7 Class VII: Diethylstilbestrol Related
- •7.2 Adenomyosis
- •7.3 Leiomyoma
- •7.4 Endometriosis
- •References
- •MR Pelvimetry
- •1 Clinical Background
- •1.3.1 Diagnosis
- •1.3.2.1 Cephalopelvic Disproportion
- •1.3.4 Inadequate Progression of Labor due to Inefficient Contraction (“the Powers”)
- •2.2 Palpation of the Pelvis
- •3 MR Pelvimetry
- •3.2 MR Imaging Protocol
- •3.3 Image Analysis
- •3.4 Reference Values for MR Pelvimetry
- •5 Indications for Pelvimetry
- •References
- •MR Imaging of the Placenta
- •2 Imaging of the Placenta
- •3 MRI Protocol
- •4 Normal Appearance
- •4.1 Placenta Variants
- •5 Placenta Adhesive Disorders
- •6 Placenta Abruption
- •7 Solid Placental Masses
- •9 Future Directions
- •References
- •Erratum to: Endometrial Cancer
58 |
A.C. Tsili |
|
|
a
b
Fig. 16 Axial T2WI in a 24-year-old woman showing plicae palmatae (long arrow). Normal left ovary is also seen (arrowhead)
Fig.15 Axial (a) T2WI and (b) T1WI showing Nabothian cysts (arrowhead)
the lower signal intensity of the inner zone (deSouza et al. 1994). Uterine cervix appears homogeneous, featureless of intermediate signal intensity on TIWI (Fig. 14c) (Brown et al. 1991). Nabothian cysts exhibit intermediate or slightly high T1 signal and prominently high T2 signal (Fig. 15).
The plicae palmatae is a normal endocervical fold, consisting of lateral parts of numerous smaller folds and a large elevation at the midline, which is thought to be a developmental remnant of the Müllerian ductal fusion. It is demonstrated as a longitudinal ridge of distinct low T2 signal at the midline of either anterior and/or posterior wall which protrudes into the cervical canal (Takahata et al. 2009). The prevalence of this finding is reported 44.5–53.2%, more often seen during the fourth decade. The incidence of plicae palmatae is significantly lower in postmenopausal women (Takahata et al. 2009) (Fig. 16).
The cervix is relatively stable on MRI during the menstrual cycle, although some studies report an increase in thickness of cervical stroma late in the cycle (Fiocchi et al. 2012; Haynor et al. 1986). The configuration of the cervix changes from elongated, seen in the premenarchal and nulliparous female to a wide short cervix of the multiparous women (Brown et al. 1991).
References
Basmajian JV (1971) Grant’s method of anatomy. The Williams & Wilkins Co, Baltimore
Brosens JJ, de Souza NM, Barker FG (1995) Uterine junctional zone: function and disease. Lancet 26:558–560 Brown HK, Stoll BS, Nicosia SV, Fiorica JV, Hambley PS, Clarke LP, Silbiger ML (1991) Uterine junctional zone: correlation between histologic findings and MR
imaging. Radiology 179:409–413
Demas BE, Hricak H, Jaffe RB (1986) Uterine MR imaging: effects of hormonal stimulation. Radiology 159:123–126 Fiocchi F, Nocetti L, Siopis E, Currá S, Costi T, Ligabue G, Toricelli P (2012) In vivo 3 T MR diffusion tensor imaging for detection of the fibre architecture of the human uterus: a feasibility and quantitative study. Br
J Radiol 85:e1009–e1017
Fornasa F, Montemezzi S (2012) Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the normal endometrium: temporal and spatial variations of the apparent diffusion coefficient. Acta Radiol 53:586–590
Foshager MC, Walsh JW (1994) CT anatomy of the female pelvis: a second look. Radiographics 14:51–64
Uterus: Normal Findings |
59 |
|
|
Fujimoto K, Kido A, Okada T, Uchikoshi M, Togashi K (2013) Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of the normal human uterus in vivo at 3 tesla: comparison of DTI parameters in the different uterine layers. J Magn Reson Imaging 38:1494–1500
Grossman J, Ricci ZJ, Rozenblit A, Freeman K, Mazzariol F, Stein MW (2008) Efficacy of contrast-enhanced CT in assessing the endometrium. AJR 191:664–669
Hauth EAM, Jaeger HJ, Libera H, Lange S, Forsting M (2007) MR imaging of the uterus and cervix in healthy women: determination of normal values. Eur Radiol 17:734–742
Haynor DR, Mack LA, Soules MR, Shuman WP, Montana MA, Moss AA (1986) Changing appearance of the normal uterus during the menstrual cycle: MR studies. Radiology 161:459–462
He Y, Ding N, Li Y, Li Z, Xiang Y, Jin Z, Xue H (2015) 3-T diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of normal uterus in young and middle-aged females during the menstrual cycle: evaluation of the cyclic changes of fractional anisotropy (FA) and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values. Br J Radiol 88:20150043
He YL, Ding N, Li Y, Li Z, Xiang Y, Jin ZY, Xue HD (2016) Cyclic changes of the junctional zone on 3 T MRI images in young and middle-aged females during the menstrual cycle. Clin Radiol 71:341–348
Hricak H, Kim B (1993) Contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the female pelvis. J Magn Reson Imaging 3:297–306 Hricak H, Alpers C, Crooks LE, Sheldon PE (1983)
Magnetic resonance of the female pelvis: initial experience. Airman 141:1119–1128
Kaur H, Loyer EM, Minami M, Charnsangavej C (1998) Patterns of uterine enhancement with helical CT. Eur J Radiol 28:250–255
Kido A, Koyama T, Kataoka M, Yamamoto A, Saga T, Turner R, Togashi K (2007) Physiological changes of the human uterine myometrium during menstrual cycle: preliminary evaluation using BOLD MR imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 26:695–700
Kido A, Kataoka M, Koyama T, Yamamoto A, Saga T, Togashi K (2010) Changes in apparent diffusion coefficients in the normal uterus during different phases of the menstrual cycle. Br J Radiol 83:524–528
Kormano MJ, Goske MJ, Hamlin DJ (1981) Attenuation and contrast enhancement of gynecologic organs and tumors in CT. Eur J Radiol 1(4):307–311
Kuang F, Ren J, Huan Y, Chen Z, Zhong Q (2012) Apparent diffusion coefficients of normal uterus in premenopausal women with 3.0-T magnetic resonance imaging. J Comput Assist Tomogr 36:54–59
Langer JE, Oliver ER, Lev-Toaff AS, Coleman BG (2012) Imaging of the female pelvis through the life cycle. Radiographics 32:1575–1597
Lim PS, Nazarian LN, Wechsler RJ, Kurtz AB, Parker L (2002) The endometrium on routine contrastenhanced CT in asymptomatic postmenopausal women: avoiding errors in interpretation. Clin Imaging 26:325–329 Mann GS, Blair JC, Garden AS (2012) Imaging of gynecological disorders in infants and children. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg
Masui T, Katayama M, Kobayashi S, Nakayama S, Nozaki A, Kabasawa H, Ito T, Sakahara H (2001) Changes in myometrial and junctional zone thickness and signal intensity: demonstration with kinematic T2-weighted MR imaging. Radiology 221:75–85
McCarthy S, Tauber C, Gore J (1986) Female pelvic anatomy: MR assessment of variations during the menstrual cycle and with use of oral contraceptives. Radiology 160:119–123
Novellas S, Chassang M, Delotte J, Toullalan O, Chevallier A, Bouaziz J, Chevallier P (2011) MRI characteristics of the uterine junctional zone: from normal to the diagnosis of adenomyosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 196:1206–1213
Punwani S (2011) Diffusion weighted imaging of female pelvic cancers: concepts and clinical applications. Eur J Radiol 78:21–29
Sala E, Rockall AG, Freeman SJ, Mitchell DG, Reinhold C (2013) The added role of MR imaging in treatment stratification of patients with gynecologic malignancies: what the radiologist needs to know. Radiology 266:717–740
Scoutt LM, McCauley TR, Flynn SD, Luthringer DJ, McCarthy SM (1993) Zonal anatomy of the cervix: correlation of MR imaging and histologic examination of hysterectomy specimens. Radiology 186:159–162
Siddall KA, Rubens DJ (2005) Multidetector CT of the female pelvis. Radiol Clin N Am 43:1097–1118
deSouza NM, Hawley IC, Schwieso JE, Gilderdale DJ, Soutter WP (1994) The uterine cervix on in vitro and in vivo MR images: a study of zonal anatomy and vascularity using an enveloping cervical coil. Am J Roentgenol 163:607–612
Takahata A, Koyama T, Kido A, Kataoka M, Umeoka S, Nishizawa S, Nishimura T, Togashi K (2009) The frequency of the plicae palmatae in the uterine cervix on MR imaging. Abdom Imaging 34:277–279
Takeuchi M, Matsuzaki K, Nishitani H (2010) Manifestations of the female reproductive organs on MR images: changes induced by various physiologic states. Radiographics 30:1147
Thomassin-Naggara I, Balvay D, Cuenod CA, Daraï E, Marsault C, Bazot M (2010) Dynamic contrastenhanced MR imaging to assess physiologic variations of myometrial perfusion. Eur Radiol 20:984–994
Togashi K, Kawakami S, Kimura I, Asato R, Okumura R, Fukuoka M, Mori T, Konishi J (1993a) Uterine contractions: possible diagnostic pitfall at MR imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 3:889–893
Togashi K, Kawakami S, Kimura I, Asato R, Takakura K, Mori T, Konishi J (1993b) Sustained uterine contractions: a cause of hypointense myometrial bulging. Radiology 187:707–710
Togashi K, Nakai A, Sugimura K (2001) Anatomy and physiology of the female pelvis: MR imaging revisited. J Magn Reson Imaging 3:842–849
Tsili AC, Argyropoulou MI, Tzarouchi L, Dalkalitsis N, Koliopoulos G, Paraskevaidis E, Tsampoulas K (2012)
60 |
A.C. Tsili |
|
|
Apparent diffusion coefficient values of the normal uterus: interindividual variations during menstrual cycle. Eur J Radiol 81:1951–1956
Yamashita Y, Harada M, Sawada T, Takahashi M, Miyazaki H, Okamura H (1993) Normal uterus and FIGO stage I endometrial carcinoma: dynamic gado- linium-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 186: 495–501
Yitta S, Hecht EM, Slywotzky CM, Bennett GL (2009) Added value of multiplanar reformation in the multidetector CT evaluation of the female pelvis: a pictorial review. Radiographics 29:1987–2005
Yitta S, Hecht EM, Mausner EV, Bennett GL (2011) Normal or abnormal? Demystifying uterine and cervical contrast enhancement at multidetector CT. Radiographics 31:647–666