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globalization has direct attitude to this unpleasant situation. It seems that only several countries have opportunity will go out from the world economic crises with less damage and losses. Such countries as Russia, India, China, and Brazil will a new basis of economy.

Effects of globalization

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as: Industrial – emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range

of foreign products for consumers and companies particularly movement of material and goods between and within national boundaries.

Financial – emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for borrowers. As these worldwide structures grew more quickly than any transnational regulatory regime, the instability of the global financial infrastructure dramatically increased, as we have evidenced by the financial crises of late 2008.

Economic – it is realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. The interconnectedness of these markets however meant that an economic collapse in any one given country could not be contained.

Political – some use "globalization" to mean the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among governments and guarantees the rights being risen from social and economic globalization. Politically, the United States has enjoyed a position of power among the world powers; in part because of its strong and wealthy economy. With the influence of globalization and with the help of The United States’ own economy, the People's

Republic of China has experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. If China continues to grow at the rate projected by the trends, then it is very likely that in the next twenty years, there will be a major reallocation of power among the world leaders. China will have enough wealth, industry, and technology to rival the United States for the position of leading world power1.

Informational – increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a technological change with the advent of fiber optic communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephone and Internet.

Language – the most popular language is English.2

About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English.

Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.

About 50% of all Internet traffic uses English.

Competition – Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity and increased competition. Due to the market becoming worldwide, companies in various industries have to upgrade their products and use technology skillfully in order to face increased competition.

Ecological – the advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may increase pollution. On the other hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued that developing countries should not, via regulation, be prohibited from increasing their standard of living.

Cultural – growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and identities which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of living and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a

1Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. P.91

2http://www.answerbag.com/q_view/53199

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Table 1 – Share of Trade in GDP (%) of the Worlds Top 25 Economies in 2002

The Indian software industry is a prime example of globalization. The industry has been characterized by large cross-border mobility of its skilled labor force. Cross-border labor refers to both temporary and permanent labor flows by Indian software professionals. The picture that emerges is of a highly mobile world in which temporary mobility has been an important characteristic of the industry. A significant number of workers have work experience abroad in a developed country. Moreover, the share of skilled workers with such experience has been positively associated with the incidence of skilled migration from the firm. This suggests network effects are at work. Further, the evidence suggests that there have been important external effects at work, as through changes in the willingness of workers to

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acquire skills, as well as through increased provision of educational services. These have further abated the risk of a brain drain. However, the software industry may be rather different from other industries.

Table 2 – Share of Foreign Firms in Indian Manufacturing, 1990 – 2001

The stunning victory of the Congress party in India’s recent election is a shot in the arm for globalization. The results show that most Indians approve of a policy of gradual economic reform—including openness to foreign investment—as long as the benefits are seen to trickle down to the country’s vast rural population. The lesson: A pro-globalization and democratic government can succeed in a poor country if its policies are seen as favoring the majority and not merely a tiny elite. Despite the global downturn, the International Monetary Fund expects India's economy to grow by 5.1 % this year, and 6.5% next year, making it an engine of global economic recovery. The victory of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and his economic team determined prospects of development. He with team are intellectually inclined toward reform, temperamentally they are wedded to gradualism. In foreign policy, the drubbing of the left and the setback to the right gives Congress more room for maneuver. The U.S.-India relationship, which has steadily deepened since the end of the Cold War, will no longer be held hostage by communist antipathy to Washington. The failure of the BJP’s campaign, which focused on the government’s dismal handling of Pakistan-backed terrorism—including the Mumbai attacks last November—makes it easier to resume negotiations with Islamabad if it can prove that it has mended its ways.

In the region, India will continue to use development aid and institution building to strengthen moderates in Afghanistan. In Pakistan too, India’s interests are aligned with America’s—the prospect of jihadists getting their hands on a nuclear weapon causes as many sleepless nights in New Delhi as it does in Washington.

In the meantime, India will continue to lobby for a permanent seat on an expanded United Nations Security Council, and will welcome the shift of the locus of international decision making from the G-8 group of industrialized democracies to the more representative (but also

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more unwieldy) G-20. On climate change, it will (along with China) continue to make the case that countries ought to be judged by per capita rather than total emissions, and that rich countries are morally bound to bear the brunt of the costs of slowing down global warming.

On trade, the politics that shape India’s demand for lower agricultural tariffs and greater labor mobility, especially for its skilled workers, are virtually set in stone.

In the long run, however, India’s global influence will be determined less by the sum of its policies than by the evidence from two central debates that set it apart from China and most of the Muslim world: the compatibility of democracy and development, and of poverty and human rights. By growing its economy an average of 8% per year over the past five years, India has shown that democracy and development can go hand in hand. At the same time, however, the average Chinese is already twice as rich as the average Indian, and the gap is widening rather than shrinking. Unless India can rapidly close the gap with China and much of Southeast Asia, the appeal of its development model will continue to be greater in industrialized countries that see democracy as an end in itself than in Asia and Africa, where

China’s success spurs envy rather than moral outrage.

Table 3 – Comparison between China and India Regarding FDI ($, in millions)

Conclusion

The world today is more dangerous and less orderly than it was supposed to be. Ten or 15 years ago, the naive expectations were that the “end of history” was near. The reality has been the opposite. The world has more international terrorism and more nuclear proliferation today than it did in 1990. International institutions are weaker. The threats of pandemic disease and climate change are stronger. Cleavages of religious and cultural ideology are more intense. The global financial system is more unbalanced and precarious.

It wasn’t supposed to be like this. The end of the Cold War was supposed to make global politics and economics easier to manage, not harder. What went wrong? The bad news of the 21st century is that globalization has a significant dark side. The container ships that carry manufactured Chinese goods to and from the United States also carry drugs. The airplanes that fly passengers nonstop from Mexico to Moscow also transport infectious diseases. And the Internet has proved just as adept at spreading deadly, extremist ideologies as it has e- commerce. The conventional belief is that the single greatest challenge of geopolitics today is managing this dark side of globalization, chipping away at the illegitimate co-travelers that

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exploit openness, mobility, and freedom, without putting too much sand in the gears. The current U.S. strategy is to push for more trade, more connectivity, more markets, and more openness. America does so for a good reason—it benefits from globalization more than any other country in the world. The United States acknowledges globalization’s dark side but attributes it merely to exploitative behavior by criminals, religious extremists, and other anachronistic elements that can be eliminated.

References

1.A Global Retreat As Economies Dry Up. The Washington Post. March 5, 2009.

2.Economic Crisis Poses Threat To Global Stability. NPR. February 18, 2009.

3.45 percent of world's wealth destroyed: Blackstone CEO. Reuters. March 10, 2009.

4.Jurgen Osterhammel and Niels P.Petersson. Globalization: a short history. (2005) P.8

5.WTO.org,(2009)

6.Bhagwati, Jagdish (2004). In Defense of Globalization. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

7.Friedman,Thomas L. "The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention." Emergin: A Reader. Ed. Barclay Barrios. Boston: Bedford, St. Martins, 2008. 49.

Ekaterina Chernenko,

3rd year student, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law Scientific adviser: Tatiana S. Boiko, PhD in Technological Sciences, Associate Professor

RAISING COMPETITIVENESS OF THE ENTERPRISES OF THE KHABAROVSKY KRAI WITHIN THE FAMEWORK OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

The paper reflects on a vital problem of the competitiveness of Russian enterprises. A term “competitiveness of an enterprise” as well as external and internal factors influencing the company’s competitiveness are considered; measures increasing competitiveness of enterprises are suggested. Under the current conditions of tough and constant competition, successful functioning of industrial enterprises primarily depends on their ability to be adapted to the dynamically changing external environment. A significant role in resolving this problem belongs to the competitiveness of enterprises which enables them to achieve their objectives; it also ensures sustainable development of an enterprise through manufacturing necessary for the market goods.

In this connection there arises an actual need for reconsidering the concept of “competitiveness” in the frames of economic globalization and the ways of assuring competitive advantage of an enterprise in the foreign market. The interrelated problems of quality as well as competitiveness have always existed.

Initially, quality was interpreted on domestic level. Then, with a development of commodity production, a control of goods’ quality emerged, which step-by-step became a large scaled control of quality on all stages of life cycle of a product. However, new requirements of cost reduction and raising effectiveness of manufacturing have formed a new philosophy of a systematic approach on ensuring the quality of goods in XX century. Total Quality Management system became a philosophy of quality in XXI century. The idea of overall quality has become officially recognized in such states as USA, Japan, UK, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil. Annually the list of the countries is renewed. It is universally agreed that XXI will be a century of quality, and

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under conditions of the global market the level of quality goods, services and management will be the main factor of competitiveness, therefore, of prosperity any enterprises, organizations, regions and countries.

However, currently there is not a single approach to the definition of the term of

“competitive capacity” [4, 5, 6, 9]. In economic research materials we can find quite often the following definition: “competitiveness” is a complex economic concept, which can be considered at various levels, for example the competitiveness of goods (individual level), the competitiveness of the enterprise (micro level), the competitiveness of industry (middle level), and the competitiveness of a national economy as a whole (macro level) [9]. Despite the fact that such levels are closely interrelated, we would like to pay more attention to the micro level.

The competitiveness of an enterprise is considered as a relative characteristic which shows the differences in the development of one enterprise from other competitors in its capacity to satisfy customers’ demand for goods as well as the efficiency of its production activities. Profit rate, mass of profit, volume of sales, market share are the results of company’s economic activity.

The analysis of economic literature has made it possible to identify the main features of the competitiveness of an enterprise. Firstly, in market economy every enterprise has its own management mechanism of competitiveness. Secondly, the level of competitiveness reflects the results of the work of all departments of the company. Thirdly, the main factor ensuring competitiveness of an enterprise is not only its ability to produce the product of a high quality but also to provide commercial success of the product. And finally, the competitiveness of an enterprise depends very much on the state of the national economy.

It should be mentioned that there is close interrelation between the competitiveness of a product and the competitiveness of a firm. The competitiveness of a product is a relative characteristic of quality and cost parameters of the product in compliance with the international standards as well as properties of the goods and general requirements of the market. And indeed, on the one hand, the enterprise can not be competitive if customers are not eager to buy its products. On the other hand, good image of a producer contributes to raising the competitiveness of its goods.

Many authors in the research papers show the influence of external and internal factors on the competitiveness of an enterprise [9, 10]. Among the first group of external factors, we can mention the government’s economic measures (shock-absorbing tax, financial and credit policies as well as financing programs aimed at raising the competitiveness of enterprises) and administrative actions (planning, amending and adopting necessary laws, the national system on standardization and certification of products and systems to produce them, consumerism).

The second group of external factors includes main features of enterprise, its type, and the scale of market, the structure of labor recourses and conjecture of financial markets. The third group of external factors covers activity of social and non-governmental institutions able to maintain and facilitate the growth of the competitive capacity of the enterprise.

The internal factors of the competitiveness of an enterprise are the potential of marketing services, scientific and technical, industrial, financial and economic, staff and ecological potential; the efficiency of advertisement, the level of technical supply; storage facilities, packing, transportation; level of preparation and elaboration of industrial processes; effectiveness of industrial control, test and investigations; level of provision with startadjusting assembly works; the level of technical service during after-produced period; the level of guarantee service.

The internal factors have, in our opinion, the bigger influence on the competitiveness of the Russian enterprises. It is important to mention such internal factors as professionalism

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of a company’s personnel, particularly of its management “core”, because the success of an organization depends on management decisions. The last, but not the least relevant role plays stable financial situation, introduction of quality control systems, implementation of innovative technologies, renovation of technical base, improvement of the assortment of goods. The external factors, such as market cycles, specific character of each market, level of government’s activity, are not so influential.

It is obvious that the more competitive advantages the enterprise has, the more chances it acquires to occupy successful and sustainable position in particular segments of market.

In the works of some authors [6, 7, 8] the following major measures raising the competitiveness of an enterprise are suggested:

1.Modernization of not only of the stock and manufacturing process itself but also enhancement of the management system alongside with changing the marketing concept of an enterprise as well as application of the quality management systems. Today many Russian companies face with the essential need to raise the level of their technologies.

2.Raising the level of innovations’ integration in the investment process and the level of investments’ stimulation. For the national and foreign investors it is important to provide the attractiveness of investment climate.

3.Creating on-site education and training in companies and developing company’s policy focusing on increasing the level of personnel’s qualification.

4.Raising the quality of goods and reliability in exploitation, elaborating fresh ideas and original view as main components of the competitive capability.

5.Application of modern marketing concepts which are actively used and widely spread in the world’s practice. This task is obviously crucial for many Russian firms which rarely use marketing principles.

6.Increasing the role of government in raising the competitiveness of enterprises. The main and most effective instruments are the mechanisms of antimonopoly policy, custom and tariff, non-tariff regulation.

The on-going process of globalization and the expected joining of the Russian Federation the World Trade Organization (WTO) requires from the producers of Russian regions and other countries seeking new ways of raising competitiveness and effective usage of an industrial potential of companies. Despite the potential positive outcomes of Russia joining WTO, there is a negative impact on some Russian industries. Restrictions put on the internal economic policy by the norms of WTO will play an important role in the branches, such as engineering industry, scientific technologies, and light industry, which nowadays need a strong mechanism of the state support. Recently the Ministry on industry transport and communications of the Khabarovsky Krai and industrial enterprises has taken measures to raise the competitiveness and quality of goods and to develop new kinds of products. The most competitive goods in the Khabarovsky Krai are the products of the defense industry for its high level of development.

The major industrial companies of the Khabarovsky Krai annually take part in the all-

Russian competitions on quality, for example “100 top goods in Russia”, “The best Russian exporter” and other ones, in order to promote Russian products, attract investments, stimulate activities of enterprises in improving quality and raising competitiveness of goods as well as to inform customers and community about the present high-quality, ecological and safe products. Moreover, there is intensification of companies’ intention to use alternative and energy-saving technologies which have primary influence on cost price. Thanks to the adoption of such new technologies, industrial companies managed to save about 120 million rubles, and this automatically helped to scotch the process of raising prices, thus maintain competitiveness of products.

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However, the aim to resolve a problem of raising competitiveness has become the priority task of the economic, social and industrial policy of the Khabarovsky Krai. Inherently, efficient work of the Ministry on industry transport and communications of the Khabarovsky Krai and industrial enterprises in raising competitiveness of produced products is connected with the penetration of new markets, and elimination of factors which have a potential bad influence on perspective development of the Khabrovsky Krai. The main bounding factors are:

1.Due to limited financial resources of majority industrial companies in the Khabarovsky Krai, most of them prefer nonrecurring profit instead of elaboration of fundamental programs on assuring quality of a product.

2.An insufficient study and usage of methods of assuring quality, as a way to be oriented at producing high-quality and competitive goods, by directors of companies.

3.A weak informational supply and a lack of scientific-technical support of enterprises.

4.An insufficient work of companies on cost reduction.

5.A lack of economic incentives for raising quality and competitiveness of the goods produced in the Khabarovsky Krai.

6.A low effectiveness of the system of retraining of highly skilled specialists for ensuring high-quality goods production.

7.A need to develop tax and custom legislation.

8.There are no intensified activities on application of the quality management systems. Only 12 big and middle industrial companies received certificates ISO 9000.

In this regard, in 2005 the Ministry on industry, transport and communications of the Khabarovsky Krai with the participation of the Ministry on economic development and overseas division of the Khabarovsky Krai, the Khabarovsk Center on standardization and metrology, the Far Eastern Chamber of Commerce and Industry and industrial enterprises and organizations have implemented a policy, the main directions of which, oriented on raising competitiveness of Khabarovsk enterprises and developing new kinds of goods in industrial Khabarovsk complex, include the following measures:

1.To evaluate probable social and economic consequences of Russian joining WTO, particularly for the Khabarovsky Krai and developing a list of regional activities on compensation expected negative impact.

2.To put “raising competitiveness of produced products” as one of the key directions in industrial policy of the Krai facilitating industrial and economic development of the Krai in a whole.

3.Raising a technical level and competitiveness of goods produced by companies in Khabarovsky Krai by making a new kinds and description of goods.

4.Raising guarantees of quality and image of enterprises and organizations in Khabarovsky Krai by application of the quality management systems, its confirmation by Russian and foreign authorities on certification.

5.To facilitate activities of cost reduction.

6.Education, retraining and refresher training of directors and specialists of companies and organizations.

7.Organizing, methodological and informational arrangements.

8.State measures to support implementation of investment projects, attract financial and other resources and assist development of investment activities.

In conclusion, it is essential to notice that competitiveness is a dynamic category; its dynamism is determined by external factors, most of which can be regulated. The competitiveness is a complex term, the analysis and evaluation of which should be linked to the specific competitive area, depending on conditions which form the competitive environment. Analyzing conditions forming competitive area in the Khabarovsky Krai, it is

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important to stress that raising competitiveness has become the primary objective in economic, social and industrial policy of the Region. Moreover, a policy developed by the Ministry on economic development and overseas division of the Khabarovsky Krai, the Khabarovsk Center on standardization and metrology, the Far Eastern Chamber of Commerce and Industry and industrial enterprises, has become a fundamental base for raising competitiveness of enterprises in the Khabarovsky Krai.

References

1.Аристов О.В. Управление качеством : учеб. пособие для вузов. – М.: ИНФРА-М, 2004. – 240с.

2.Белоусов В.Л. Анализ конкурентоспособности фирмы// Маркетинг в России и за рубежом. – 2001. - № . – С.25-35.

3.Кувалин Д.Б., Моисеев А.К. Российские предприятия в начале 2008 года: конкурентная ситуация и уровень конкурентоспособности// Проблемы прогнозирования. – 2008. - №5. – С.138-155.

4.Лифиц И.М. Формирование и оценка конкурентоспособности товара и услуг. – М.: Юрайт-Издат, 2004, 335с.

5.Мансуров Р.Е. Об экономической сущности понятия «конкурентоспособность предприятия» и «управления конкурентоспособностью предприятия»// Маркетинг в России и за рубежом. – 2006. – № 2. – С.91-94.

6.Моисеева Ю. Основные положения оценки и пути обеспечения конкурентоспособности предприятия// Менеджмент сегодня. – 2005. - №6. – С. 15-20.

7.Овчинникова Т.И. Управление конкурентоспособностью предприятия на основе социальной функции// Управление персоналом. – 2008. - №1. – С. 53-55.

8.Туркова Е. Повышение конкурентоспособности предприятия: роль организационных преобразований// Проблемы теории и практики управления. – 2007. - №4. – С. 115-120.

9.Шлык Н.Л., Артеменко Т.В., Бойко Т.С., Кочемасова А.В., Лысенко В.А. Выход предприятия на внешний рынок: основы бизнеса// учебное пособие/ под ред. проф. Н.Л. Шлык. – Хабаровск, РИЦ ХГАЭП, 2007. – С. 183-205.

10.«Управление ростом и конкурентоспособностью российских компаний» // http://www.segment.ru/rearticles. php/show/555/15/0/2/.

Olga Levintal,

2nd year student, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law

THE COUNTRIES OF THE “GROUP OF EIGHT” AND THE PROBLEMS OF

CLIMATE AND ECOLOGY CHANGE IN THE WORLD

The Earth is a cradle of the mankind, the only and that’s why a unique planet of the Solar system and the nearest galaxies that where the life originated. And as the major wonder of this planet, undoubtedly, one can name a human being. The one has given himself many names -

“the top of the evolution”, “the king of nature”… Only one name is missing – “the guardian of the planet Earth”.

Rearing his empire on the planet and year by year striving for improvement of his life, the human being has forgotten that the “king of nature” has a duty to take care of his “kingdom”, which once gave him his life. Nowadays, when the mankind entered the new age

– the age of technologies - the care given to the Earth and nature is necessary as never before. Have learnt how to explore the space, nearby and distant worlds, creating electronic

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of energy into natural gas use will be started. These projects will be realized in collaboration with the Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

Current situation with environment and climate changes is very complicated. It is necessary to start right away the realization of all measures what representatives of the

“Group of Eight” were talking about at their joint meetings.

Also, the representatives of the Group of Eight concentrated their attention on the problem of global warming during the summits carried out in Hokkaido, Japan, in 2008 and in L’Aquila, Italy, on the 8-10th of July, 2009. They emphasized the necessity of using nuclear power as one of the sources that may partly reduce dependence on fossil fuel, and at the same time they reiterated that safeguards (nuclear nonproliferation), nuclear safety and nuclear security (3S) are fundamental principles for the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Then, it was announced that the volume of carbon dioxide emissions is planned to be reduced by almost 50 % by the year 2050.

In my opinion, the decision of the Group of Eight is absolutely right, and to prevent an ecological catastrophe the whole world community should unite its efforts:

-step by step lead the policy of emission reduction in developed countries,

-to give technological assistance to developing countries and help them to support their economic growth by energy without coal firing, for instance, using biological fuel,

-more actively introduce the cars using alternative types of fuel into everyday life,

-develop nuclear technologies to use this power as a substitute of fossil fuel, while being guided by the principals of safety and peaceful usage of nuclear power.

Usage of new technologies and renunciation of old habits could give us hope for the preservation of the planet. But only if we act together in quick and drastic manner.

Today, only a narrow window of possibilities is open, and this window is quickly closing. However, it is quite wide open yet for the ray of hope to pass through.

Natalia Ivanova,

4th year student, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law Scientific adviser: Galina V. Klishina, Instructor

ECONOMY AS A REFLECTION OF THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE

We live in the century of global changes. The whole world of 21st century shows enormous rates of developing. All spheres of life exist in close co-operation. There is interdependence of economic policy of development and the political regime of the country. The development of economic, trade and commercial relations during the political crisis or even in the period of a military conflict between states is an extremely actual problem nowadays, but there is a lack of information about this problem.

That’s why the aim of our work is to analyze the interconnection between political environment and the rates of economic development and trade relations.

Global political environment combines a great number of components:

bilateral and multilateral relations between countries, including national and international relations and military defense;

economic bilateral and multilateral relations, including issues of functioning national economy, commerce, and trade;

political relations, including interaction of international organizations (governmental and non-governmental organizations, parties, alliances, associations).

On the basis of the practical interaction of these components we can establish that economy follows the politics.

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Theoretical issue of political and economic interaction is based on two mechanisms through which political relations between countries influence their commercial relations.

The first mechanism is state-centered. Taking into account that cross-border economic relations can influence interstate security relations, state leaders can consider all consequences and limit cross border economic integration even to the total reduction, if there are complications right up to military conflict. The impact of economic interdependence on military conflict is significant. [3]

The second mechanism of components’ interaction is based on economic benefit of individual commercial agents, who realize that worsening of political relations between countries increase the risk of economic failure of agents’ business. These arguments concentrate on the issues of cross-border commerce, functioning of military industrial complex. It means that commercial integration has an important influence on bilateral and multilateral political relations. [3]

At the same time conflict’s effect on commerce isn’t completely universal. For example, despite of well-known political confrontation between Taiwan and Mainland of China, economic connections and flows between the mainland and the island have increased substantially for the past two years.

So, we can make a conclusion that economic integration and interdependence can reduce the risk of military conflicts between countries. Realizing what way commercial ties can develop even in the shadow of severe conflict’s political tension we can therefore understand which political actions can result in war and which can not. To illustrate these theoretical aspects, we should analyze concrete practical cases. We need to proof the following statements bilateral and multilateral commercial and trade relations depend on:

(a)Present conditions of the military environment in this or that region;

(b)The fact if there is political conflict.

For example considering the relations between the USA and Iraq we can notice the presence in them periods of both «war» and «piece».

Volume of Iraq - USA trade

Picture 1 - Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Division,

Data Dissemination Branch

At the beginning of 90-s years of the 20th century Iraq was considered by the American State Department as a sponsor of global terrorism, country-invader, that caused the realization of military actions «Storm in the desert». According to the picture 1 we can see that the trade between these countries almost didn’t exist in that period.

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But after the 1996 Iraq’s oil became very important source of energy for both – the USA and the whole world. That time there was enormous growth of trade volume between Iraq and the USA due to oil trade. The rapid increase of trade has changed political relations between these countries. During the 1997 and 2001 these relations were quite calm, according to the ASD documents Iraq as very important country for the USA was deleted from the list of «terrorist» States. [1].

However, after the terrorist attacks on the USA of the 11th of September 2001, Iraq was again declared as a State, supporting terrorism. The USA declared the struggle with the regime of Hussein. With the aim of searching for the chemical weapon the USA came into Iraq and overthrew Hussein without sanctions of the United Nations Security Council. The political relations were ruined. The trade between these countries rapidly decreased. This example gives the clear illustration of how the trade relations depend on the solution for political issues between two states during the conflict.

Another example describes India-Pakistan trade relations and interdependence between political and economic environments.

This region is has a great number of conflict situations between these countries based on inter-ethnic relations. Kashmir is the region of big number of military precedents.

After the Indo-Pak war in 1965, this conflict consists of periods of increasing and decreasing. After that war the trade between these States has broken up for 9 years. India and Pakistan signed after the 1871 war in 1974 the protocol for the restoration of commercial relations on the basis the government to the government. And following this protocol bilateral trade did resume in 1975-1976 and reminded in the insignificant level only recently. [2]

According to the picture 2, since 1996, trade between two countries was at much higher levels than before. But after 1998 and during 3 years the conflict appeared again and it caused the straight decrease of the trade volume.

Analyzing the commercial environment of firms engaged in trading between India and Pakistan due to a survey conducted in Delhi, Amritsar and Mumbai, we can see that several firms are entering into trading with Pakistan. Evidence of anonymous trading indicates that such trading should facilitate to improvement of information trade volume and quantity and quality of goods.

Transportation ties between two countries are weak with only two operational routes namely the Mumbai-Karachi sea route and Attari/Wagah land border. It can be easily explained by the border tensions and the fear of terrorist attacks. The first step of overcoming this obstacle must be the initiative of the governments to reduce the border tension and promote security on the way of exporting-importing goods. [2]

Nowadays the political relations between these two states are not stable. India has claims to Pakistan due to that fact, that citizens of Pakistan took part in terrorists attacks in regions of India in 2008. So we can suppose that statistics of India-Pakistan trade will have negative dynamics in this period and the nearest future, until they find solutions to certain number of political problems.

These examples illustrate the statement that during military conflicts the trade activity rapidly decreases. So we’ve considered the theoretical part in this work, practical examples of political and economic interdependence and demonstration of economics as a reflection of political thinking. This is an attempt to give businessmen, the military and entrepreneurs the main conception about the fact, military conflicts not only disturb political relations, but also damage or even break up commercial and business ties.

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Picture 2 - India-Pakistan trade

Source: Direction of trade IMF, 2006

The experience of the different countries can be used to prevent future conflicts and to establish the dynamic economic and trade growth. Russian Federation can and should take into account the reasons and consequences of military conflicts to build stable economic and political bilateral and multilateral relations. For instance, Russia can use the trade connections with Georgia to prevent the opportunities of future conflicts, making at the same time strong political, economic and trade ties with South Osetia and Abkhasia. And maybe not the ballistic missiles are guarantees of peace and security in the world. The guarantee for peace is stable, constantly improving economic relations, because economics is a hard work, the opportunity to show the best features of the State for its benefit.

References

1.Data Dissemination Branch of the Foreign Trade Division - Trade in Goods (Imports, Exports and Trade Balance) with Iraq, 2009

2.ICRIER – Working paper #182, Nisha Taneja – India-Pakistan trade

3.Heidelberg institute for International conflict research, the Department of Political Science, University of Heidelberg – Political conflicts of 2008

Irina Kulgina, Elvira Shakhverdieva,

5th year students, Business Department, Institute of Technology and Business, Scientific adviser: Olga A. Berezkina, PhD in Pedagogical Sciences, Instructor

STABILITY AND SECURITY OF THE WORLD COMMUNITY UNDER GLOBALIZATION CONDI-TIONS

Introduction

Urgency of the theme “Stability and security of the world community under globalization conditions” is undisputed. In the last several decades, countries around the world were shaken with various cataclysms. Last decade of present millennium suffers from universal problems, on which decision doesn’t depend on only existence of mankind, but also public progress.

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globalization is very often used in order to address to economic globalization, which in fact is integration of national economies affecting on global economics through trade, foreign direct investment, capital movements and distribution of technologies. Also globalization can be defined as internationalization of everything, concerning different countries.

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as: industrial, financial, economic, political, informational, cultural, ecological and social.

Apparently globalization has touched various aspects of life activity, but we shall divide globalization into three main kinds: a policy, economy and culture so that to understand merits and demerits comparatively how globalization will help to make the world steady and safe1.

Political Globalization

Globalization means the weakening of the national states in a policy structure. On the one side, it takes place due to that the modern states delegate more and more authority to the powerful international organizations, such as the United Nations Organization, the World Trade Organization, the European Union, the NATO, IMF and World Bank. On the other hand, due to reduction of the state intervention in economy and decreasing of taxes the enterprises’ political influence (especially large transnational corporations) is increased. The states’ authority in relation to own citizens also decreases because of easier people’s migration and free capitals movement abroad.

Economic Globalization

For economic globalization aspects are significant free trade, free movement of capital, tax enterprises profit deduction, simplicity of moving productive industry between the divers states on behalf of costs reduction on labour and natural resources, and also developed and less developing countries steadily approach on a level of salaries, the quotation for goods and profitability of the enterprises. The outsourcing tendency is from no profile operation of companies to the specialized companies and many other things.

Cultural Globalization

For cultural globalization rapprochement of business and consumer culture between the different countries and growth of the international communication is typical. On the one hand, this results in popularization of separate kinds of national culture in worldwide. On the other hand, the popular international cultural event can displace national or transform them in international. Many people regard it, as loss of national cultural values and struggle for revival of national culture. It is essential to dot one’s ‘i’s’ in this case and not to confuse the process of humanity evolution in its foreign communications and relations, and the propagation’s process of the American mode of life and thought.

Foreign relations and superpowers

The foreign states’ relations are one of the bases on which the modern society is under construction. Today, existence of a civilization depends on mutual relation between the states. Modern foreign relations represent complicated system of political, economical, cultural and other. There are a number of superpowers such as the United Nations (UN) which activity is directed on peacekeeping and safety, and also on strengthening of the international cooperation of all countries2. UN is an international organization with the purposes of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations on the principle of equal rights and self-determination, and encouraging international cooperation in solving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems. For example, let’s consider the alarming situations, concerning North Korea3. This country

1Зевин Л.З. Экономические структуры разного уровня в глобальных процессах: особенности взаимодействия. М., 2003

2Морозов Г.И. Международные организации. Некоторые вопросы теории. 2-е изд. М., 1974

3www.un.org/ru

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despite of the United Nation’s demands continues to expand its nuclear programme. And the wrong situation forms, because international inspectors can’t resist to Korea’s action. We all remembered that fact that international observers were ejected from this country and as a result the United Nations was never able to get a complete picture of the North Korea's programme and was never in a position to state with certainty that its character was peaceful.

This program and Korea’s statements about successfully tested of nuclear weapon, spread alarm throughout the Asian-Pacific region and the whole world.

And what measures must be taken by the UN’s members? UN applies intensive diplomatic efforts, aimed to rein in North Korea's nuclear ambitions. But it’s very strange from Korea’s side firstly agreed with shutting down its main nuclear reactor in return for aid and diplomatic concessions and then retracted its own words, meanwhile accusing negotiating partners - the US, South Korea, Japan, China and Russia - of failing to meet agreed obligations. What is the position of North Korean government? It wants to show their superiority, intimidating not only world community, but also innocent civilians around the world. Maybe in this situation the disadvantages of globalization reveal …maybe exactly these unstable positions, sometimes military and dangerous, undermine UNO's authority. We suppose that all conflicts must be regulated on the diplomatic level, we live in the third millennium and governments must submit to international laws and declarations. Times of territory conquest have gone; nowadays we want to live in the peace world without any wars.

But it is impossible, as we can see in practice. Certain organizations, blocks or countries outrage the law, in spite of international conventions. The striking example of this is the Somali pirates, who are not just mythological characters with peg legs, parrots and pistols. Nowadays they carry Kalashnikov's rifles and use speedboats to rule the high seas of the world. Piracy is a major problem off the Somali coast. Piracy has become a way of life for many young Somali men, as they simply do not know any better. These men have no education and no understanding of the rule of law. Exactly difficult living conditions instigate them to crime. And the problem solving consists in rising standard of education, providing local citizens with work places, in order to diminish all wants to break the law.

Somalia is a unique problem, because there is no effective central government and no navy to protect its territorial waters. Even 191 commercial vessels have suffered from pirates for 2008 year. Despite of taken measures (such as patrolling or forming the “safe channels”), Somali pirates don’t observe the international laws. That’s why world community must combine forces, because no one nation has a responsibility for policing international waters. In this question countries concerned must be involved, as they have an economic or strategic interest in maintaining the security of sea lines of communication. And without help from other countries, it is very difficult to imagine whether Somalia will have sufficient resources and infrastructure to deal with piracy itself?

The role U.N.O. in development stimulation on the assumption of globalization

The management of globalization remains large-scale problem. Economic integration has a global market forces, which essentially effect on countries’ level of influence in forming national politics. But then international obligations tie countries to certain international rules and processes. This obligations are very extensive, it spreads on economic, social and ecological sphere, but at the same time, they are often complex. Many countries have no an idea about this obligations. In the world policy, countries are faced with numerous problems, trying coordinate international obligations with national priority, especially under conditions, when all nations intimately related. Developing countries, particularly the least developed and most vulnerable of them, are on the bit in the world arena. Their ability of having brave and specific purpose-oriented national development strategy is restrained by some of international politics and obligations requirement, by demand of international processes and rules.

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governments and superpowers. Its negative consequences are diverse from crime wave and spread of dangerous diseases till rise of racist moods and xenophobia both in developed and in the developing states.

4.Even in the most successful countries the difference between a standard of living and welfares of rich and poor sections of the population is increased.

5.The environment condition which is sacrificed to interests of business becomes worse.

6.Stupefying influence of Masscult impending to cultural variety grows.

There was an evolution in activity of UNO peacekeeping over years so that it corresponded to necessity of wants’ satisfaction of various conflicts and a varied political structure. Today's peacemakers realize the wide range of complicated problems, including ministration in creation of stable management institutes and the control of observance of human rights, realization sector safeties reforms, demobilization and disarmament.

Modern peacekeeping in all kinds and forms (from preventive diplomacy to reasonable violence) is an effective way of prevention, the control and settlement of armed conflict despite of all omissions and defects. It is necessary to give more attention to the warning of rise or fomentation a conflict and also to prevention warfare where they have not been broken out yet for effectivization of the international community’s peacekeeping efforts all-in-all. It is well-known fact that to warn illness much more easy and more inexpensive, than to treat it.

So as to solve new problems and respond to new political realities the activity of UNO peacekeeping is under of constant evolution both with conceptual and tactical point of views. The organization positively aspires to increasing the potential on realization and guarantee of operations and by that to promote performance of the most important function of the United Nations Organization, namely peacekeeping and safety.

References

1.Зайцева О.Г. Международные организации: принятие решений. М.,1989

2.Зевин Л.З. Экономические структуры разного уровня в глобальных процессах: особенности взаимодействия. М., 2003

3.Инфра-М. Практика глобализации: игры и правила новой эпохи. М., 2000

4.Миньяр-Белоручева А.П., Миньяр-Белоручев К.В. "Английский язык" - учебник для вузов - 3-е изд.,стериотип. - М.: Издательство "Экзамен", 2005.-352с

5.Морозов Г.И. Международные организации. Некоторые вопросы теории. 2-е изд.

М., 1974

6.Шибаева Е.А. Право международных организаций. М., 1986

7.http://www.intertrends.ru

8.http://www.politobraz.ru

9.www.un.org/ru

10.http://www.yachtmagazine.ru/piraty

Yulia Leonova, postgraduate student, Pacific State University

THE ROLE OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS IN POVERTY REDUCTION: TOWARDS A METHODOLOGY FOR POVERTY AND SOCIAL IMPACT

ASSESSMENT OF THE CLUSTER DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES

Our concern with poverty reduction is in part motivated by the policy focus on this area arising from the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals, and commitment by leading industrial and developing countries to half the proportion of households with income per person of less than US$1 per day by 2015. Poverty is also increasingly acknowledged as a

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multi-dimensional problem that involves more than deprivation of income, but also lack of freedom, increased vulnerability, risk, and powerlessness. One third of deaths - some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day - are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990. Poverty increases the risk of homelessness. There are over 100 million street children worldwide. Increased risk of drug abuse may also be associated with poverty. /4/ According to the World Bank «meagre assets, inaccessible markets and scarce job opportunities lock people in material poverty» /5/.

Industrial clusters, which Michael Porter defines as «a geographically proximate group of inter-connected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by commonalities and complementarities», have long attracted the attention of researchers and policy makers for the growth prospects and poverty reduction. /6/ This assumption is grounded in the notion that SMEs account for a significant proportion of manufacturing employment in developing countries, and that they are predominant in labor intensive sectors with a propensity of employment of the working poor. Clusters allow SMEs to overcome constraints on their size, and offer possibilities of collective action in the face of common problems. Such benefits are brought into sharper perspective by the process of globalization which, while offering new opportunities for developing country enterprises and workers, inter alia, raises the vulnerability of small firms, and those who work in them, to external shocks.

Clustering may not only raise employment and incomes for the poor, it can also have implications for wider notions of poverty addressing issues of risk, vulnerability, empowerment and participation for poor and marginalized groups. This section of the article examines ways in which clusters could potentially affect a poverty reduction agenda. The very presence of a cluster changes the context in which the poor live, by enhancing the ability of individual cluster actors, be they workers or producers, to potentially improve their wellbeing. Clusters allow local small producers to make more effective use of underutilized resources, such as small scale savings or family labor, generating incomes that they could not avail by operating in isolation. This is because the process of clustering engenders various benefits. This includes agglomeration gains to clustered firms, such as externalities in the markets for labor, inputs, know-how and information, economies of scale and scope as individual firms take on specialized tasks through a division of labor. In resource poor regions, or at early stages of industrial development, this can be especially significant, promoting specialization by way of «small steps». Finally, clustering is a dynamic process, leading to «winners» and «losers» amongst firms and workers. Thus, in assessing the links between clusters and poverty we concentrate on three aspects of clusters. First, cluster features - the cluster’s location, the types of firms within it, and the types of employment generated and their relationship to poverty. Second, cluster processes - agglomeration gains, joint action, cluster institutions and social capital and poverty. Third, cluster dynamics - cluster growth, upgrading, and differentiation and poverty. All three affect the well-being of cluster-based workers and producers, and are directly relevant to poverty. /7/ Clustering sets into motion a range of potential benefits that can directly affect the poor, both as waged workers, home workers, own-account workers as well as small entrepreneurs. This can be through externality gains, joint action, and local social capital. Clusters are dynamic. They evolve as a consequence of local and external linkages. A key process of change within clusters comes about through local upgrading. This results in enhanced human capital and improved technological capacities for firms and enhanced capabilities for workers and small producers. Raising human capital improves productivity and leads to rising incomes and wages as well as sustained employment growth.

Next part of the article revisits evidence from a variety of cluster studies using a poverty perspective. There are numerous examples of clusters at early stages of industrialization,

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engaged in labor intensive sectors and operating within, or on the boundaries of the urban informal economy. These are found in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Such clusters generate employment and incomes for the working poor, and in many cases for the very poor. Dawson’s study of the Kumasi, Ghana auto-parts and vehicle repair clusters, for example, reported over 5,000 workshops employing some 40,000 persons engaged in metalworking, the manufacture of auto-parts and in vehicle repair. The cluster had grown, but remained on the borderline of the informal economy with extensive «use of cheap family and apprentice labour» /9/. Knorringa found that the shoe cluster of Agra, India, employed 60,000 workers in some «5,000, mostly informal small scale units». /10/

Now we turn to the processes associated with clustering, namely external economy gains arising from agglomeration, local joint action especially through local institutions, and the role of social capital in fostering local cooperation and contributing to social protection. A key element of the benefits of clustering is externality gains. This attracts traders and lowers costs. Similarly, McCormick found reduction in «search and reach costs» to be a critical advantage that clustering generated for small, often informal, firms in African clusters.

In other cases, such as the Kumasi auto-parts cluster, in addition to better market access, labor market pooling and extensive subcontracting, clustered producers benefited from local technological spillovers and knowledge flows. Similarly, Visser found that passive externality gains were important in the Gamarra garment cluster. They lowered transaction costs to clustered small firms by their ability to easily access inputs, through the subcontracting so specific and specialized finishing tasks which generated scale and scope economies and again through knowledge spill-overs within the cluster. In each cluster external economy gains are critical for small firms to compete in local and global markets, to grow and to generate further employment. /13/

The evidence on joint action in mature clusters is much stronger. More importantly, in many cases of relatively mature clusters, many of which were until not so long ago incipient clusters, such forms of joint action are often pronounced in the face of external threats. Clusters that compete in global markets are particularly vulnerable to the exigencies of global competition. Liberalization, new competition, demands from global buyers to meet global standards and new technologies can force cooperation as clusters seek collective paths to enhancing collective capabilities. Stronger evidence on cluster-wide institutional joint action was observed by Nadvi, in the context of the Sialkot surgical instrument cluster in Pakistan, and by for the tanning cluster of the Palar Valley in Tamil Nadu, India. /15/ Compliance with global quality assurance standards, a necessary requirement for exports to leading global markets by the Sialkot cluster, came about through the catalytic role of the local trade association in channelling new know-how on quality management practices to the cluster. Faced with the loss of key export markets, local firms through collective institutions entered into an agreement with international bodies, including the International Labour Organization

(ILO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), as well as leading global buyers. This resulted in an ILO monitoring programme of the cluster and a social development strategy, based on education and income generation, for child workers and their households. Thus, local joint action resulted in direct gains for the cluster, employment and cluster exports rose, while immediate poverty concerns for many of the more vulnerable members of the cluster’s labour force began to be addressed.

A policy agenda on clusters and poverty needs to have, as a starting point, a method of exante identifying clusters where poverty concerns are especially valid. Our discussion on the relationship between poverty reduction and specific cluster features, cluster processes and cluster dynamics provides us with a basis for mapping clusters and poverty. Table 1 shows how UNIDO’s interventions to support cluster development, through promoting enterprise development, inter-firm linkages and local governance, can impact on poverty concerns. /7/

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Table 1 – Cluster-poverty relationship: the expected effects of UNIDO cluster development interventions

There is no single blueprint for impact assessment. Instead, there is a continuum from more quantitative economic approaches, to sociological and anthropological approaches. An economic approach is usually equated with an income and expenditure approach to poverty. It employs questionnaire surveys based on representative samples or existing large data sets based on national surveys to undertake quantifiable statistical analysis of impacts. The economic approach aims to provide an «impartial» appraisal that can isolate and assess the specific effects of a particular policy independently of other variables that might also co-exist. It takes a comparative static approach, normally constructing a scientifically selected control group to measure a quantifiable impact in different time periods, and is often costly in time and resources to undertake. Sociological and anthropological approaches offer a broader picture, and have their roots in more qualitative analysis. /17/

Now we turn to some of the key issues that need to be addressed in designing the impact assessment methodology. These range from mapping the cluster and the institutional environment in which the CDP operates to the key actors to be assessed, the scope of the assessment and the indicators to be used. An understanding of the economic and social environment in which a cluster is located is essential for understanding the poverty impact of the CDP. This includes an examination of: background information on the development of the industry or sector, aggregate production, employment and trade statistics, the regulatory context at a national, regional and local level, the level of state services and infrastructure

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available, local statistics on population, health, education, morbidity, social and demographic profiles relating to gender, ethnicity, religion and any other relevant socio-economic factors, e.g. migratory trends, recent economic shocks. These broader factors influence the operation of the cluster, how the impact of a CDP is mediated, and need to be taken into account by a PSIA. Next a more detailed mapping of the cluster actors identifies the specific types of firm, actors and institutions operating within the cluster, and their relationship to each other. A simplified cluster value chain is depicted in Picture 1.

Subcontractors

NGOs

Homeworkers

Picture 1 – Simplified value chain mapping of industrial cluster and institutions

Mapping the commercial linkages between firms within an industrial cluster helps identify «poverty nodes» within it. These are the points in the value chain where specific groups of producers and/or workers are located who are vulnerable to poverty, or likely to be in poverty. Such nodes are highlighted by the shaded boxes on the left side of Picture 1. These could arise because of the type of activity people are engaged in and/or because of their social, religious or ethnic status. Poverty nodes within clusters can be further disaggregated into different sub-groups, for example micro-entrepreneurs and waged workers, or male and female, with different levels of vulnerability to poverty. Subgroups are not homogenous, their composition will vary and some sub-groups may be better off than others.

Cluster development programs tend to concentrate on the growth and competitiveness of firms. A poverty focused strategy requires stronger attention to people within clusters, namely entrepreneurs and workers, their households and the wider community. Thus, a pro-poor cluster development strategy may require the tweaking of existing cluster development initiatives. A pro-poor cluster development strategy needs to consider the following points.

Poverty targeting namely identifying clusters that have a high incidence of poor households. Clustering advantages promoting activities where local joint action is lacking or where attempts to foster such local cooperation could have more direct impacts on poverty. Poverty strategic support - this may involve distinguishing between the kinds of support needed for poorer workers and entrepreneurs and for those in the cluster that are better off. Training - Training of poor, especially unskilled, workers can be a critical aspect of raising productivity and skills as well as enhancing the competitive abilities of the cluster. Recognizing cluster differences between firms, as well as between firms and workers and amongst workers. Cluster impact assessment as a means of assessing and improving the pro-poor effect of cluster development policies.

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References

1.Chifa Tekaya The fight against extreme poverty: an intersectorial challenge / Chifa Tekaya // UNESCO social and human sciences sector magazine. – 2006. № 14. – P. 8-10

2.Jolie A. Notes from my travels: visits with refugees in Africa, Cambodia, Pakistan and Ecuador / Angelina Jolie. – USA, - 2003. – 273 p.

3.Jeffrey D. Shachs The end of poverty: economic possibilities for our time / Jeffey D. Shachs. - Penguin (Non-classics), - 2006. – 416 p.

4.Poverty from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [On-line document] Access mode: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty

5.World Development Report 2000-2001: Attacking Poverty / World Bank and Oxford University Press, - Oxford. – 2000.

6.Porter M. E. Location, Clusters and Company Strategy / M. E. Porter, G. L. Clark, M. P. Feldman, M. S. Gertler. - Oxford University Press, - Oxford. – 20002. P.53-274

7.Nadvi K. Industrial clusters and poverty reduction / K. Nadvi, S. Barrientos. – United Nations Industrial Development Organization. – Vienna. – 2004. – 67 p.

8.Das K. Can Firm Clusters Foster Non-Farm Jobs? Policy Issues for Rural India? / K. Das // Working Paper. Gujrat Institute of Development Research. - Ahmedabad. – 2003.

9.Dawson J. The relevance of the flexible specialisation paradigm for small scale industrial restructuring in Ghana / J. Dawson // IDS Bulleti. – 1992. vol. 23, № 3. – P. 34-38

10.Knorringa P. Agra: an old Cluster facing the new competition / P. Knorringa // World Development. – 1999. - vol. 27, № 9. – P. 1587-1604

11.Weijland H. Microenterprise clusters in rural Indonesia: industrial seedbed and policy target // H.Weijland // World Development. – 1999. vol. 27, № 9. – P. 1515-1530

12.Singh N. Readymade garment industry in Tiruppur / N. Singh. – NCAER. - New Delhi. – 2003.

13.McCormick D. African enterprise clusters and industrialisation: theory and reality / D. McCormick // World Development. – 1999. - vol. 27. - №. 9. - P. 1531-1552

14.Kennedy L. Co-operating for survival: tannery pollution and joint action in the Palar Valley, India / L. Kennedy // World Development. – 1999. - vol. 27. - №. 9. - P. 1673-1692

15.Nadvi K. The effect of Global standards on local producers: a Pakistani case study / K. Nadvi // Local nterprises in the Global Economy: Issues of Governance and Upgrading. - Edward Elgar Press. – Cheltenham. – 2003.

16.Sandee H. The impact of the crisis on small-scale enterprises in Java, findings from selected case studies / H. Sandee // Innovation and small enterprises in the third world. - Edward Elgar Press. – Cheltenham. – 2002.

17.Kirkpatrick C. Methodologies for sustainability. Impact assessments of proposals for new trade agreements: some issues relevant to their future development / C. Kirkpatrick, N. Lee. - University of Manchester. – 2000.