01 POWER ISLAND / 02 H2+NH3 / The_Future_of_Hydrogen-IEA-2020
.pdfThe Future of
Hydrogen
Seizing today’s opportunities
Report prepared by the IEA for the G20, Japan
J u n e 2 0 1 9
The Future of
Hydrogen
Seizing today’s opportunities
Report prepared by the IEA for the G20, Japan
The Future of Hydrogen |
Foreword |
Foreword
This is a critical year for hydrogen. It is enjoying unprecedented momentum around the world and could finally be set on a path to fulfil its longstanding potential as a clean energy solution.
To seize this opportunity, governments and companies need to be taking ambitious and realworld actions now. We are very grateful to the government of Japan for its request under its presidency of the G20 that the International Energy Agency (IEA) prepare this important and timely report.
Our study provides an extensive and independent assessment of hydrogen that lays out where things stand now; the ways in which hydrogen can help to achieve a clean, secure and affordable energy future; and how we can go about realising its potential. To help to get things moving, we have identified the most promising immediate opportunities to provide a springboard for the future.
As the world’s leading energy authority covering all fuels and all technologies, the IEA is ideally placed to help to shape global policy on hydrogen. The rigorous analysis in this report was conducted in close collaboration with governments, industry and academia.
This study on hydrogen is part of a comprehensive approach the IEA is taking to the global energy system. Last month, we published a report on the role of nuclear power in a clean energy system. We are also holding various high-level meetings to underscore the critical elements needed for a sustainable energy future – including a ministerial conference in Dublin this month on energy efficiency and another ministerial on systems integration of renewables in Berlin in October 2019.
I very much hope our report on hydrogen will inform discussions and decisions among G20 countries, as well as those among other governments and companies across the world. I hope it will help to translate hydrogen’s current momentum into real-world action that sets hydrogen firmly on the path to becoming a significant enabler of a clean, secure and affordable energy future.
Beyond this report, the IEA will remain focused on hydrogen, further expanding our expertise in order to monitor progress and provide guidance on technologies, policies and market design.
We will continue to work closely with governments and all other stakeholders to support your efforts to make the most out of hydrogen’s huge potential.
The IEA looks forward to continuing this journey together.
Dr. Fatih Birol
Executive Director
International Energy Agency
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IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Acknowledgements |
Acknowledgements
This study was prepared by a cross-agency hydrogen working group drawn from all relevant directorates and offices of the IEA. The study was designed and directed by Timur Gül (Head of the Energy Technology Policy Division) and Dave Turk (Head of the Strategic Initiatives Office). The analysis and production of the report was co-ordinated by Simon Bennett and Uwe Remme.
Main contributors were Herib Blanco (transport sector), Pierpaolo Cazzola (transport sector), John Dulac (buildings sector), Hiroyuki Fukui (transport sector), Tae-Yoon Kim (oil refining), Zeynep Kurban (transmission, distribution and storage; policy), Peter Levi (industrial applications), Raimund Malischek (hydrogen supply), Christophe McGlade (transmission, distribution and storage), Kristine Petrosyan (oil refining), Cédric Philibert (hydrogen supply), Jacob Teter (transport sector) and Jabbe van Leeuwen (projects and industrial clusters). Other contributors were Thibaut Abergel, Julien Armijo, Araceli Fernandez Pales, Jacopo Tattini, Renske Schuitmaker and Tiffany Vass. Paul Lucchese (Chair of the Hydrogen Technology Collaboration Programme; Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA) was part of the IEA team and provided expert input throughout the process. Caroline Abettan, Lisa Marie Grenier and Réka Koczka provided essential support.
Edmund Hosker carried editorial responsibility. Justin French-Brooks was the copy-editor.
The report benefited from valuable inputs, comments and feedback from other experts within the IEA, including Paul Simons, Mechthild Wörsdörfer, Laura Cozzi, Laszlo Varro, Paolo Frankl, Peter Fraser, Tim Gould and Julian Prime. Thanks also go to Tom Allen-Olivar, Jon Custer, Astrid Dumond, Christopher Gully, Jad Mouawad, Isabelle Nonain-Semelin, Robert Stone and Therese Walsh of the IEA Communication and Digital Office for their help in producing the report.
The work could not have been achieved without the support provided by: the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; the Netherlands Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy; and the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.
We are particularly indebted to the expertise and guidance of the High-Level Advisory Panel for this report, chaired by Noé van Hulst (Hydrogen Envoy, Ministry of Economic Affairs & Climate
Policy, Netherlands). Members include The |
Honourable Elisabeth Köstinger (Minister of |
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Sustainability and Tourism, Austria), Ahmad O. Al-Khowaiter, Chief Technology Officer, Saudi |
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Aramco), Dr. Alan Finkel (Australia’s Chief Scientist, Office of the Chief Scientist), Mikio Kizaki |
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(Chief Professional Engineer, Toyota Motor Corporation, Japan), Dr. Rebecca Maserumule |
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(Chief Director of Hydrogen and Energy, Department of Science and Technology, South Africa), |
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Dr. Ajay Mathur |
(Director |
General, |
The |
Energy and Resources Institute, India), |
|
Dominique Ristori |
(Director |
General |
Energy, |
European Commission), |
Dr. Sunita Satyapal |
(Director Fuel Cell Technologies Office, US |
Department of Energy, |
United States) and |
Dr. Adnan Shihab-Eldin (Director General of the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences, Kuwait).
PAGE | 4
IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Acknowledgements |
We appreciate the contributions of speakers and participants at the IEA High-Level Workhop on Hydrogen held in February 2019.
Many experts from outside the IEA provided input, commented on the underlying analytical work and reviewed the report. Their comments and suggestions were of great value. They include:
Jørg Aarnes |
DNV |
Anthy Alexiades |
California Air Resources Board |
Maria Belen Amunátegui Vallejo |
Enagás |
Everett Anderson |
NEL Hydrogen |
Florian Ausfelder |
Dechema |
Fredrik Bengtsen |
Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and |
|
Energy |
Bart Birbuyck |
FCH-JU |
Simon Blakey |
IHS Markit |
Klaus Bonhoff |
NOW |
Valérie Bouillon-Delporte |
Michelin |
Chris Bronsdon |
Eneus Energy |
Tyler Bryant |
Fortis BC |
Karl Buttiens |
Arcelormittal |
Jorgo Chatzimarkakis |
Hydrogen Europe |
Ping Chen |
Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics |
Jan Cihlar |
Navigant |
Roberto Cimino |
Eni |
Elizabeth Connelly |
US Department of Energy |
Anne-Sophie Corbeau |
BP |
Paula Coussy |
IFP |
Mark Crowther |
Kiwa Gastek |
Jostein Dahl Karlsen |
IEA Gas and Oil TCP |
Bill David |
University of Oxford |
Guillaume De Smedt |
Air Liquide |
Amandine Denis-Ryan |
ClimateWorks Australia |
Steinar Eikaas |
Equinor |
Masana Ezawa |
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, |
|
Japan |
Alessandro Faldi |
Exxon Mobil |
Pierre-Etienne Franc |
Air Liquide |
Sam French |
Johnson Matthey |
Katharina Giesecke |
Permanent Mission of Austria to the OECD |
Florie Gonsolin |
CEFIC |
Jürgen Guldner |
BMW |
Manfred Hafner |
FEEM |
Ilkka Hannula |
VTT |
David Hart |
E4tech |
Bernd Heid |
McKinsey & Company |
Emile Herben |
Yara |
Caroline Hillegeer |
Engie |
Katsuhiko Hirose |
I2CNER |
|
PAGE | 5 |
IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen Acknowledgements
Lindsay Hitchcock |
Natural Resources Canada |
Théophile Hordé |
Safran Group |
Andreas Horn |
BASF |
Brigitta Huckerstein |
BASF |
Yuki Ishimoto |
The Institute of Applied Energy |
Nikolas Iwan |
H2 Mobility |
Emmanouil Kakaras |
Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Europe |
Tim Karlsson |
IPHE |
Rob Kelly |
ClimateWorks Australia |
Roland Käppner |
Thyssenkrupp |
Phillippe Kavafyan |
MHI Vestas Offshore Wind |
Vanessa Koh |
Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore |
Pawel Konzal |
Chevron |
Angel Landa Ugarte |
Iberdrola |
Jonathan Leaver |
Unitec Institute of Technology |
Ashish Lele |
Reliance Industries |
Chiara Marricchi |
Enel |
Takeshi Matsushita |
Mitsubishi Corporation International |
|
(Europe) |
Alicia Mignone |
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Italy |
Jongsoo Mok |
Hyundai Motor |
Pietro Moretto |
Joint Research Centre – European |
|
Commission |
Takashi Moriya |
Honda R&D |
Peter Morris |
Minerals Council of Australia |
Hechem Nadjar |
Shell |
Motohiko Nishimura |
Kawasaki Heavy Industry |
Mikael Nordlander |
Vattenfall |
Eiji Ohira |
NEDO |
Matt Pellow |
EPRI |
Joris Proost |
Université catholique de Louvain |
Danny Pudjianto |
Imperial College London |
Carlo Raucci |
University Maritime Advisory Services |
Alison Reeve |
Department of the Environment and |
|
Energy, Australia |
Henk Reimink |
World Steel Association |
Andrew Renton |
Transpower |
Martin Robinius |
FZ Juelich |
Mark Ruth |
National Renewable Energy Laboratory |
Jacques Saint-Just |
H2 Plus |
Stanley Santos |
Tata Steel Europe |
Kazunari Sasaki |
Kyushu University |
Manfred Schuckert |
Daimler |
Virginie Schwarz |
French Ministry of Ecology, Energy, |
|
Sustainable Development and Spatial |
|
Planning |
Yoshiaki Shibata |
The Institute of Energy Economics, Japan |
Bunro Shiozawa |
SIP |
Tristan Smith |
University College London |
|
PAGE | 6 |
IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Acknowledgements |
Markus Steinhäusler |
Voestalpine |
Hideyuki Takagi |
National Institute of Advanced Industrial |
|
Science and Technology |
Peter Taylor |
Leeds University |
Daniel Teichmann |
Hydrogenious |
Denis Thomas |
Hydrogenics |
Øystein Ulleberg |
IFE |
Fridtjof Unander |
Research Council Norway |
Rita Wadey |
Department for Business, Energy & |
|
Industrial Strategy, United Kingdom |
Hans-Jörn Weddige |
Thyssenkrupp |
Liu Wei |
China Energy Investment Corporation |
Brittany Westlake |
EPRI |
Ad van Wijk |
Delft University of Technology |
Juergen Wollschlaeger |
Heide Refinery |
Linda Wright |
NZ Hydrogen Association |
Akira Yabumoto |
Electric Power Development |
Makoto Yasui |
Chiyoda |
Cheng Yibu |
Sinopec Economics and Development |
|
Research Institute |
Rudolf Zauner |
Verbund |
Robert Zeller |
Occidental Petroleum |
Christian Zinglersen |
Clean Energy Ministerial |
PAGE | 7
IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Table of contents |
Table of contents
Executive summary...................................................................................................................................... |
13 |
The IEA’s 7 key recommendations to scale up hydrogen........................................................................................ |
16 |
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................ |
17 |
2019: A moment of unprecedented momentum for hydrogen............................................................................... |
18 |
There are multiple mutually reinforcing reasons why this time around might well be different for hydrogen ......... |
22 |
The crucial role for governments .......................................................................................................................... |
30 |
Hydrogen and energy: A primer............................................................................................................................ |
31 |
References ........................................................................................................................................................... |
36 |
Chapter 2: Producing hydrogen and hydrogen-based products ........................................................................ |
37 |
Production of hydrogen today .............................................................................................................................. |
38 |
Hydrogen from natural gas................................................................................................................................... |
39 |
Hydrogen from water and electricity..................................................................................................................... |
42 |
Hydrogen from coal.............................................................................................................................................. |
49 |
Hydrogen from biomass ....................................................................................................................................... |
51 |
Comparison between alternative hydrogen production pathways......................................................................... |
52 |
Converting hydrogen to hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks that are easier to store, transport and use............. |
55 |
References ........................................................................................................................................................... |
64 |
Chapter 3: Storage, transmission and distribution of hydrogen........................................................................ |
67 |
Hydrogen storage................................................................................................................................................. |
69 |
Hydrogen transmission and distribution ............................................................................................................... |
70 |
Total cost of delivering and storing hydrogen ....................................................................................................... |
81 |
References ........................................................................................................................................................... |
85 |
Chapter 4: Present and potential industrial uses of hydrogen ......................................................................... |
89 |
Hydrogen in oil refining ........................................................................................................................................ |
91 |
Hydrogen in the chemical sector........................................................................................................................... |
99 |
Hydrogen in iron and steel production ................................................................................................................ |
108 |
Hydrogen for high-temperature heat.................................................................................................................. |
116 |
References ......................................................................................................................................................... |
120 |
Chapter 5: Opportunities for hydrogen in transport, buildings and power ....................................................... |
123 |
Hydrogen as a basis for clean transport fuels ...................................................................................................... |
124 |
Hydrogen as a fuel for heat in buildings .............................................................................................................. |
144 |
Hydrogen for power generation and electricity storage....................................................................................... |
150 |
References ......................................................................................................................................................... |
160 |
Chapter 6: Policies to boost momentum in key value chains .......................................................................... |
167 |
Key findings from IEA analysis ............................................................................................................................ |
168 |
Near-term opportunities...................................................................................................................................... |
171 |
1. Coastal industrial clusters: Gateways to building clean hydrogen hubs ............................................................. |
177 |
2. Existing gas infrastructure: Tapping into dependable demand......................................................................... |
182 |
3. Fleets, freight and corridors: Make fuel cell vehicles more competitive ............................................................ |
185 |
4. The first shipping routes: Kick-start international hydrogen trade ................................................................... |
188 |
Next steps................................................................................................................................................. |
193 |
What next for analysts? ...................................................................................................................................... |
193 |
What next for governments and industry? .......................................................................................................... |
194 |
References ......................................................................................................................................................... |
194 |
Abbreviations and acronyms....................................................................................................................... |
197 |
PAGE | 8
IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Table of contents |
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List of figures |
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Figure 1. |
Global annual demand for hydrogen since 1975................................................................................... |
|
18 |
Figure 2. |
Policies directly supporting hydrogen deployment by target application ............................................. |
|
20 |
Figure 3. |
Government RD&D budgets for hydrogen and fuel cells...................................................................... |
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20 |
Figure 4. |
Capacity of new projects for hydrogen production for energy and climate purposes, by technology |
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and start date ..................................................................................................................................... |
|
26 |
Figure 5. |
A guide to the hydrogen energy value chain, from supply to end use ................................................... |
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29 |
Figure 6. |
Today’s hydrogen value chains............................................................................................................ |
|
32 |
Figure 7. |
Potential pathways for producing hydrogen and hydrogen-based products......................................... |
|
39 |
Figure 8. |
Production process of hydrogen from gas with CCUS.......................................................................... |
|
40 |
Figure 9. |
Hydrogen production costs using natural gas in different regions, 2018............................................... |
|
42 |
Figure 10. |
Development of electrolyser capacity additions for energy purposes and their average unit size, |
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1990–2019.......................................................................................................................................... |
|
45 |
Figure 11. |
Expected reduction in electrolyser CAPEX from the use of multi-stack systems................................... |
|
47 |
Figure 12. |
Future levelised cost of hydrogen production by operating hour for different electrolyser investment |
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costs (left) and electricity costs (right)................................................................................................. |
|
47 |
Figure 13. |
Hydrogen costs from electrolysis using grid electricity ........................................................................ |
|
48 |
Figure 14. |
Hydrogen costs from hybrid solar PV and onshore wind systems in the long term ............................... |
|
49 |
Figure 15. |
Hydrogen production costs in China today .......................................................................................... |
|
51 |
Figure 16. |
Hydrogen production costs for different technology options, 2030...................................................... |
|
52 |
Figure 17. |
CO2 intensity of hydrogen production ................................................................................................. |
|
53 |
Figure 18. |
Comparison of hydrogen production costs from electricity and natural gas with CCUS in the near term54 |
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Figure 19. |
Hydrogen production costs in different parts of the world ................................................................... |
|
55 |
Figure 20. |
Outputs and losses of different pathways for hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks from electrolytic |
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hydrogen ............................................................................................................................................ |
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56 |
Figure 21. |
Number of new projects for making various hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks from electrolytic |
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hydrogen ............................................................................................................................................ |
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57 |
Figure 22. |
Indicative production costs of electricity-based pathways in the near and long term ........................... |
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60 |
Figure 23. |
Synthetic diesel and methane production costs and CO2 price penalty needed for competitiveness |
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with fossil diesel and natural gas in the long term................................................................................ |
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62 |
Figure 24. |
Transmission, distribution and storage elements of hydrogen value chains ......................................... |
|
68 |
Figure 25. |
Tolerance of selected existing elements of the natural gas network to hydrogen blend shares by |
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volume ............................................................................................................................................... |
|
72 |
Figure 26. |
Current limits on hydrogen blending in natural gas networks .............................................................. |
|
73 |
Figure 27. |
Cost of hydrogen storage and transmission by pipeline and ship, and cost of hydrogen liquefaction |
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and conversion ................................................................................................................................... |
|
78 |
Figure 28. |
Cost of hydrogen distribution to a large centralised facility and cost of reconversion to gaseous |
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hydrogen ............................................................................................................................................ |
|
80 |
Figure 29. |
Full cost of hydrogen delivery to the industrial sector by pipeline or by ship in 2030 for different |
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transmission distances........................................................................................................................ |
|
81 |
Figure 30. |
Cost of delivering hydrogen or ammonia produced via electrolysis from Australia to an industrial |
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customer in Japan in 2030 ................................................................................................................... |
|
82 |
Figure 31. |
Comparison of delivered hydrogen costs for domestically produced and imported hydrogen for |
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selected trade routes in 2030 .............................................................................................................. |
|
83 |
Figure 32. |
Cost of electrolytic hydrogen imports from North Africa supplied to a hydrogen refuelling station in |
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Europe in 2030.................................................................................................................................... |
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84 |
Figure 33. |
Allowed sulphur content in oil products............................................................................................... |
|
92 |
Figure 34. |
Sources of hydrogen supply for refineries in selected regions, 2018..................................................... |
|
93 |
Figure 35. |
Hydrogen production costs compared to refining margins, 2018 ......................................................... |
|
94 |
Figure 36. |
Future hydrogen demand in oil refining under two different pathways ................................................ |
|
95 |
Figure 37. |
Hydrogen production costs from natural gas with and without CCUS by region under different carbon |
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prices, 2030 ........................................................................................................................................ |
|
97 |
Figure 38. |
Hydrogen demand for ammonia and methanol production in 2018 ................................................... |
|
100 |
Figure 39. |
Hydrogen demand for primary chemical production for existing applications under current trends.... |
102 |
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Figure 40. |
The implications of cleaner process routes for methanol and ammonia production ........................... |
|
105 |
Figure 41. |
Costs and CO2 intensities for greenfield ammonia and methanol production in 2018 ......................... |
|
106 |
Figure 42. |
Variation of ammonia and methanol production costs with fuel price in the long-term ....................... |
|
107 |
Figure 43. |
Hydrogen consumption and production in the iron and steel sector today......................................... |
|
109 |
Figure 44. |
Theoretical potential for dedicated hydrogen demand for primary steel production .......................... |
|
110 |
Figure 45. |
Energy implications of fulfilling hydrogen demand via the DRI-EAF route.......................................... |
|
114 |
Figure 46. |
Estimated costs of steel for selected greenfield production routes in 2018.......................................... |
|
115 |
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IEA. All rights reserved.
The Future of Hydrogen |
Table of contents |
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Figure 47. |
Comparison of cleaner routes for steel production in the long term................................................... |
|
116 |
Figure 48. |
Demand for heat in industry under current trends .............................................................................. |
|
117 |
Figure 49. |
Economics and future potential in the context of a USD 100/tCO2 carbon price ................................. |
|
118 |
Figure 50. |
Fuel cell electric cars in circulation, 2017–18 ...................................................................................... |
|
126 |
Figure 51. |
Hydrogen refuelling stations and utilisation, 2018 ............................................................................. |
|
128 |
Figure 52. |
Road vehicle fleet growth to 2030 under current trends..................................................................... |
|
130 |
Figure 53. |
Benchmarking hydrogen refuelling station capital costs as a function of capacity............................... |
|
133 |
Figure 54. |
Total cost of car ownership by powertrain, range and fuel .................................................................. |
|
135 |
Figure 55. |
Break-even fuel cell cost to be competitive with BEV in the long term ............................................... |
|
136 |
Figure 56. |
Current and future total cost of ownership of fuel/powertrain alternatives in long-haul trucks ............ |
137 |
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Figure 57. |
Current and future total cost of ownership of fuel/powertrain alternatives in a bulk carrier ship ......... |
141 |
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Figure 58. |
Break-even carbon price for ammonia to be competitive with fossil fuels .......................................... |
|
142 |
Figure 59. |
Spread of energy prices, performance and operational costs for gas and electric heating equipment in |
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IEA countries, 2017 ............................................................................................................................ |
|
147 |
Figure 60. |
Potential hydrogen demand for heating in buildings and spread of competitive energy prices in |
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selected markets, 2030 ..................................................................................................................... |
|
148 |
Figure 61. |
Development of global stationary fuel cell capacity, 2007–18 ............................................................. |
|
153 |
Figure 62. |
Break even for hydrogen CCGT against other flexible power generation options ................................ |
|
157 |
Figure 63. |
Levelised electricity generation costs for load balancing from natural gas and hydrogen ................... |
|
158 |
Figure 64. |
Levelised costs of storage as a function of discharge duration ........................................................... |
|
159 |
Figure 65. |
Today’s fuel prices in hydrogen-equivalent terms on an energy basis (left) and accounting for the |
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relative efficiencies to provide the same service (right)....................................................................... |
|
170 |
Figure 66. |
Global distribution of existing refining, steelmaking and chemical cracking plants.............................. |
|
178 |
Figure 67. |
Cost and emissions intensity of blending hydrogen into the gas network at different blend shares .... |
183 |
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Figure 68. |
Routes for hydrogen trading with long-term costs compared to domestic production. ...................... |
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189 |
List of boxes |
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Box 1. |
Previous waves of enthusiasm for hydrogen ....................................................................................... |
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19 |
Box 2. |
How this report manages uncertainties about present and future costs and potentials ........................ |
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30 |
Box 3. |
Emerging technologies to produce hydrogen ...................................................................................... |
|
41 |
Box 4. |
Thermal routes for hydrogen production – a case for nuclear?............................................................. |
|
46 |
Box 5. |
CO2 sources for synthetic hydrocarbons.............................................................................................. |
|
58 |
Box 6. |
Production of hydrogen and ammonia from solar and wind in China ................................................... |
|
62 |
Box 7. |
Advantages and disadvantages of ammonia and LOHCs ..................................................................... |
|
75 |
Box 8. |
Can California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard support low-carbon hydrogen?......................................... |
|
98 |
Box 9. |
Existing and planned low-carbon ammonia and methanol production............................................... |
|
103 |
Box 10. |
Projects for low-emissions steel production ....................................................................................... |
|
111 |
Box 11. |
General challenges facing the use of hydrogen for heat in industry.................................................... |
|
119 |
Box 12. |
Public and private initiatives for hydrogen in road transport.............................................................. |
|
129 |
Box 13. |
Policy opportunities for promoting the use of hydrogen in road transport ......................................... |
|
134 |
Box 14. |
The ENE-FARM programme in Japan ................................................................................................ |
|
145 |
Box 15. |
Fuel cell technologies for stationary power applications .................................................................... |
|
152 |
Box 16. |
Using fuel cells to provide back-up power and access to electricity .................................................... |
|
154 |
Box 17. |
Putting low-cost energy resources to higher-value uses ..................................................................... |
|
173 |
Box 18. |
Focus on the North Sea region .......................................................................................................... |
|
179 |
Box 19. |
Realising existing government targets would drive down costs by 2030............................................. |
|
186 |
Box 20. |
Key ongoing hydrogen projects related to hydrogen trade in Asia Pacific .......................................... |
|
191 |
List of tables |
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Table 1. |
Selected hydrogen-related government announcements since early 2018........................................... |
|
21 |
Table 2. |
Physical properties of hydrogen .......................................................................................................... |
|
35 |
Table 3. |
Techno-economic characteristics of different electrolyser technologies .............................................. |
|
44 |
Table 4. |
Summary of hydrogen use in industrial applications and future potential ............................................ |
|
90 |
Table 5. |
Potential uses of hydrogen and derived products for transport applications ...................................... |
|
125 |
Table 6. |
Potential routes to use hydrogen for buildings heat supply................................................................ |
|
144 |
Table 7. |
The global buildings stock and share of gas in heat production in 2017 .............................................. |
|
146 |
Table 8. |
2030 natural gas demand for heat in buildings and indicative theoretical hydrogen demand in ............... |
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selected regions................................................................................................................................ |
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149 |
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PAGE | 10 |
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IEA. All rights reserved.