0647126_DA545_nadeina_l_v_radioekologiya
.pdf6.2 Complete these sentences using the information from the text.
1.A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome …………………….. .
2.The clinical name for «radiation sickness» is …………………………….. .
3.The use of radionuclides in science and industry is …………………… .
4.To accurately assess the risk of radiation, the absorbed dose energy in rad is multiplied by ……………………………………………………………… .
5.The rad is a unit of absorbed radiation dose defined in terms of ………… .
6.Thus one gray is equal …….. .
7.In the event of an accidental or deliberate release of radioactive material, either evacuation or ……………………………………………………….. .
8.Radiation poisoning, also called «radiation sickness» or a «creeping dose», is a form of …………………………………………………………………. .
9.Dose-equivalents are presently stated …………………………………. .
10.One rad is an absorbed dose of ………………………………………….. .
6.3 Find the words to the following definitions and translate them into Russian.
1 |
a) |
is a unit of absorbed radiation dose defined in terms of the en- |
|
ergy actually deposited in the tissue |
|
|
|
|
2 |
b) |
is an absorbed dose of 0.01 joules of energy per kilogram of |
|
tissue (or 100 ergs per gram) |
|
3 |
c) |
is equal to 100 rad |
4 |
d) |
is equal to 100 rem |
5 |
e) |
is the derived limit for the amount of radioactive material taken |
|
into the body of an adult worker by inhalation or ingestion in a |
|
|
year |
|
6 |
f) is the smaller value of intake of a given radionuclide in a year |
|
|
by the reference man that would result in a committed effective |
|
|
dose equivalent of 5 rems or a committed dose equivalent of 50 |
|
|
rems to any individual organ or tissue |
|
7 |
g) |
is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure |
|
to ionizing radiation |
|
|
|
|
7. Give the presentation «The Chernobyl accident» using key phrases and words (see ex.15, p.51). Use the information «Chernobyl Matryoshka» (Unit IV) and ex. 6, pp. 10-11(Unit I). See Appendix (Chernobyl Era).
91
REFERENCES
1.А.Н. Олейник, А.А. Демина Английский язык. Пособие для аспирантов. Томск, 2000.
2.Л.П. Рихванов «Радиоактивные элементы в окружающей среде и проблемы радиоэкологии», Томск, 2009"Acute Radiation Syndrome".
3.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005-05-20. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/ars.asp.
4.Acute Radiation Syndrome, National Center for Environmental Health/Radiation Studies Branch, 2002-04-09, http://www.umt.edu/research/Eh/pdf/AcuteRadiationSyndrome.pdf
5.«Acute Radiation Syndrome: A Fact Sheet for Physicians». Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005-03-18. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/arsphysicianfactsheet.asp.
6.The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Revised ed. 1962, p. 578
7.Radiation sickness-overview, accessed on April 16, 2009, www.umm.edu/ency/article/000026.htm.
8.Radiation sickness, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, accessed on April 16, 2009, www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000026.htm.
9.«The Chernobyl Accident and Its Consequences». The International Nuclear Safety Center. 1995. Archived from the original on 2008-02-10. http://www.insc.anl.gov/neisb/neisb4/NEISB_3.3.A1.1.html. Retrieved on 2008-09-18.
10.«Ushering in the era of nuclear terrorism», by Patterson, Andrew J. MD, PhD, Critical Care Medicine, v. 35, p.953-954, 2007.
11.http://www.envimed.com/emb08.shtml
12.Luckey, Thomas (1999-05). «Nurture With Ionizing Radiation: A Provocative Hypothesis». Nutrition and Cancer 34 (1).
13.«10 CFR 20.1201 Occupational dose limits for adults». United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1991-05-21. http://www.nrc.gov/reading- rm/doc-collections/cfr/part020/part020-1201.html.
14.http://www.Marie Curie and the history of radioactivity. Marie Curie’s blog.htm
15.http://www.Radioactivity Figures.htm
16.http://www.Radioactivity history for radioactivity centure and 20 years of LAPP.htm
17.http://www.The discovery of Radioactivity The Dawn of the Nuclear Age.htm
18.Pier Roberto Danesi «Investigating fallout from nuclear testing. Hot
particles |
and |
the |
Cold |
War, |
IAEA |
Bulletin, |
40/4/1998 |
92
APPENDIX
93
|
Glossary of Nuclear Science Terms |
|
|
|
A |
Absorber |
Any material that stops ionizing radiation. Lead, concrete, |
|
and steel attenuate gamma rays. A thin sheet of paper or |
|
metal will stop or absorb alpha particles and most beta |
|
particles. |
Alpha particle |
A positively charged particle (a Helium-4 nucleus) made |
(alpha radia- |
up of two neutrons and two protons. It is the least pene- |
tion, alpha ray) |
trating of the three common forms of radiation, being |
|
stopped by a sheet of paper. It is not dangerous to living |
|
things unless the alpha-emitting substance is inhaled or |
|
ingested or comes into contact with the lens of the eye. |
Atom |
A particle of matter indivisible by chemical means. It is |
|
the fundamental building block of elements. |
Atomic number |
The number assigned to each element on the basis of the |
|
number of protons found in the element's nucleus. |
Atomic weight |
Approximately the sum of the number of protons and neu- |
(atomic mass) |
trons found in the nucleus of an atom. |
|
|
|
B |
Background ra- |
The radiation of man's natural environment originating |
diation |
primarily from the naturally radioactive elements of the |
|
earth and from the cosmic rays. The term may also mean |
|
radiation extraneous to an experiment. |
Beta particle |
An electron of either positive charge (ß+) or negative |
(beta radiation, |
charge (ß-), which has been emitted by an atomic nucleus |
beta ray) |
or neutron in the process of a transformation. Beta parti- |
|
cles are more penetrating than alpha particles but less |
|
than gamma rays or x-rays. |
|
C |
Contamination |
Radioactive material deposited or dispersed in materials |
|
or places where it is not wanted. |
Cow |
A radioisotope generator system. |
|
|
Curie (Ci) |
The basic unit used to describe the intensity of radioactiv- |
|
ity in a sample of material. One curie equals thirty-seven |
|
billion disintegrations per second, or approximately the |
|
radioactivity of one gram of radium. |
|
|
|
94 |
|
D |
Daughter |
A nucleus formed by the radioactive decay of a different |
|
(parent) nuclide. |
Decay (radioac- |
The change of one radioactive nuclide into a different |
tive) |
nuclide by the spontaneous emission of alpha, beta, or |
|
gamma rays, or by electron capture. The end product is |
|
a less energetic, more stable nucleus. Each decay proc- |
|
ess has a definite half-life. |
Decontamination |
The removal of radioactive contaminants by cleaning |
|
and washing with chemicals. |
Density |
That property of a substance which is expressed by the |
|
ratio of its mass to its volume. |
Dose |
A general term denoting the quantity of radiation or en- |
|
ergy absorbed in a specific mass. |
|
E |
Electromagnetic |
Radiation consisting of electric and magnetic waves that |
radiation |
travel at the speed of light. Examples: light, radio waves, |
|
gamma rays, x-rays. |
|
|
Electron |
An elementary particle with a unit electrical charge and a |
|
mass 1/1837 that of the proton. Electrons surround the |
|
atom's positively charged nucleus and determine the |
|
atom's chemical properties. |
Electron capture |
A radioactive decay process in which an orbital electron |
|
is captured by and merges with the nucleus. The mass |
|
number is unchanged, but the atomic number is decreased |
|
by one. |
Eluant |
Washing solution (The solution that is introduced into the |
|
cow). |
Eluate |
The washings obtained by elution (the solution that |
|
comes out of the cow). |
Excited state |
The state of an atom or nucleus when it possesses more |
|
than its normal energy. The excess energy is usually re- |
|
leased eventually as a gamma ray. |
|
F |
Fission |
The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two roughly equal |
|
parts (which are nuclei of lighter elements), accompanied |
|
by the release of a relatively large amount of energy in |
|
the form of kinetic energy of the two parts and in the |
|
form of emission of neutrons and gamma rays. |
|
95 |
Fission products |
Nuclei formed by the fission of heavy elements. They are |
|
of medium atomic weight and almost all are radioactive. |
|
Examples: strontium-90, cesium-137. |
|
G |
Gamma ray |
A highly penetrating type of nuclear radiation, similar to |
|
x-radiation, except that it comes from within the nucleus |
|
of an atom, and, in general, has a shorter wavelength. |
Geiger counter |
A Geiger-Müller detector and measuring instrument. It |
|
contains a gas-filled tube which discharges electrically |
|
when ionizing radiation passes through it and a device |
|
that records the events. |
Generator |
A cow-a system containing a parent-daughter set of radio- |
|
isotopes in which the parent decays through a daughter to |
|
a stable isotope. The daughter is a different element from |
|
that of the parent, and, hence, can be separated from the |
|
parent by elution (milking). |
|
H |
Half-life |
The time in which half the atoms of a particular radioac- |
|
tive nuclide disintegrate. The half-life is a characteristic |
|
property of each radioactive isotope. |
Health physics |
That science devoted to recognition, evaluation, and con- |
|
trol of all health hazards from ionizing radiation. |
|
I |
Induced radio- |
Radioactivity that is created by bombarding a substance |
activity |
with neutrons in a reactor or with charged particles pro- |
|
duced by particle accelerators. |
Ion |
An atomic particle that is electrically charged either nega- |
|
tive or positive. |
Ionizing radia- |
Radiation that is capable of producing ions either directly |
tion |
or indirectly. |
Irradiate |
To expose to some form of radiation. |
Isomer |
One of several nuclides with the same number of neutrons |
|
and protons capable of existing for a measurable time in |
|
different nuclear energy states. |
Isometric tran- |
A mode of radioactive decay where a nucleus goes from a |
sition |
higher to a lower energy state. The mass number and the |
|
atomic number are unchanged. |
Isotope |
Isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number |
|
(same number of protons in their nuclei) but different |
|
atomic weights (different number of neutrons in their nu- |
|
96 |
|
clei). Uranium-238 and uranium-235 are isotopes of ura- |
|
nium. |
|
K |
K-capture |
The capture by an atom's nucleus of an orbital electron |
|
from the first K-shell surrounding the nucleus. |
keV |
One thousand electron volts. |
|
M |
MeV |
One million electron volts. |
Microcurie |
One millionth of a curie (3.7 x 104 disintegrations per |
(µCi) |
second). |
Milk |
To elute a cow. |
Minigenerator |
A trademark of Union Carbide Corporation that is used to |
|
identify radioisotope generator systems for educational use. |
|
N |
Neutrino |
An electrically neutral particle with negligible mass. It is |
|
produced in many nuclear reactions such as in beta decay. |
|
|
Neutron |
One of the basic particles which make up an atom. A neu- |
|
tron and a proton have about the same weight, but the |
|
neutron has no electrical charge. |
|
|
Nuclear reactor |
A device in which a fission chain reaction can be initi- |
|
ated, maintained, and controlled. Its essential components |
|
are fissionable fuel, moderator, shielding, control rods, |
|
and coolant. |
Nucleon |
A constituent of the nucleus; that is, a proton or a neutron. |
|
|
Nucleonics |
The science, technology, and application of nuclear energy. |
|
|
Nucleus |
The core of the atom, where most of its mass and all of its |
|
positive charge is concentrated. Except for hydrogen, it |
|
consists of protons and neutrons. |
Nuclide |
Any species of atom that exists for a measurable length of |
|
time. A nuclide can be distinguished by its atomic weight, |
|
atomic number, and energy state. |
|
P |
Parent |
A radionuclide that decays to another nuclide which may |
|
be either radioactive or stable. |
Photon |
A quantity of electromagnetic energy. Photons have mo- |
|
mentum but no mass or electrical charge. |
|
97 |
Proton |
One of the basic particles which makes up an atom. The |
|
proton is found in the nucleus and has a positive electrical |
|
charge equivalent to the negative charge of an electron |
|
and a mass similar to that of a neutron: a hydrogen nu- |
|
cleus. |
|
R |
Rad |
Radiation Absorbed Dose. The basic unit of an absorbed |
|
dose of ionizing radiation. One rad is equal to the absorp- |
|
tion of 100 ergs of radiation energy per gram of matter. |
Radioactive dat- |
A technique for estimating the age of an object by meas- |
ing |
uring the amounts of various radioisotopes in it. |
Radioactive |
Materials which are radioactive and for which there is no |
waste |
further use. |
Radioactivity |
The spontaneous decay of disintegration of an unstable |
|
atomic nucleus accompanied by the emission of radiation. |
Radioisotope |
A radioactive isotope. A common term for a radionuclide. |
Radionuclide |
A radioactive nuclide. An unstable isotope of an element |
|
that decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radia- |
|
tion. |
Rate meter |
An electronic instrument that indicates, on a meter, the |
|
number of radiation induced pulses per minute from ra- |
|
diation detectors such as a Geiger-Muller tube. |
|
S |
Scaler |
An electronic instrument for counting radiation induced |
|
pulses from radiation detectors such as a Geiger-Muller |
|
tube. |
Scintillation |
An instrument that detects and measures gamma radiation |
counter |
by counting the light flashes (scintillations) induced by |
|
the radiation. |
Secular equilib- |
A state of parent-daughter equilibrium which is achieved |
rium |
when the half-life of the parent is much longer than the |
|
half-life of the daughter. In this case, if the two are not |
|
separated, the daughter will eventually be decaying at the |
|
same rate at which it is being produced. At this point, |
|
both parent and daughter will decay at the same rate until |
|
the parent is essentially exhausted. |
Shielding |
A protective barrier, usually a dense material, which re- |
|
duces the passage of radiation from radioactive materials |
|
to the surroundings. |
|
|
|
98 |
Source |
A radioactive material that produces radiation for experi- |
|
mental or industrial use. |
Spill |
The accidental release of radioactive materials. |
Stable |
Non-radioactive. |
|
T |
Tracer |
A small amount of radioactive isotope introduced into a |
|
system in order to follow the behavior of some compo- |
|
nent of that system. |
Transmutation |
The transformation of one element into another by a nu- |
|
clear reaction. |
99
A brief Chronology of Radiation and Protection
|
The Beginning |
1,800,000 |
•First «reactor accident». Concentration of enriched |
uranium forms natural nuclear reactor at Oklo, Gabon and |
|
BC |
becomes critical; core burns for 200,000 years. |
500 BC |
•Democritus and Leucippus of Greece postulate that all |
|
matter is made of indivisible units they call «atomos». «For |
|
by convention color exist, by convention bitter, by conven- |
|
tion sweet, but in reality atoms and void». -- Galen quoting |
|
one of Democritus' 72 lost works. |
450 BC |
•Greek philosopher Anaxagoras states that matter can- |
|
not be created nor destroyed. |
79 AD |
•First known use of uranium. Roman artisans produce |
|
yellow colored glass in mosaic mural near Naples. |
1400 AD |
•Mysterious malady kills miners at an early age in |
|
mountains around Schneeberg (Saxony) and Joachimsthal |
|
(Jachymov) in the Sudetenland (now Czechoslovakia). |
|
Called «mountain sickness». |
1669 |
•Phosphorous discovered by Hennig Brand (Germany). |
|
Early Years |
1704 |
• «It seems probable to me that God in the beginning |
|
formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable par- |
|
ticles, of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, |
|
and in such proportion to space, as most conduced to the end to |
|
which he formed them». --Sir Isaac Newton. |
1735 |
•Platinum discovered by Julius Scaliger (Italy). |
1737 |
•Cobalt discovered by George Brandt (Sweden). |
1746 |
•Zinc discovered by Andreas Marggraf (Germany). |
1751 |
•Nickel discovered by Axel Cronstedt (Sweden). |
1766 |
•Hydrogen discovered by Henry Cavendish (England). |
1772 |
•Nitrogen discovered by Daniel Rutherford (Scotland). |
1774 |
•Oxygen discovered by Joseph Priestly (England) and |
|
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Sweden). |
|
•Chlorine discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Sweden). |
|
•Manganese discovered by Johann Gahn (Sweden). |
|
100 |