из электронной библиотеки / 401649537030607.pdf

The Transformation project also included improvements to the Swan Theatre, the creation of an array of new public spaces, including a new Riverside Cafe and Rooftop Restaurant, a 36 metre observation tower, and improved backstage conditions for the actors and crew. The new theatre is also more accessible to people with disabilities and offers a more comfortable theatre experience.

The theatre is a ―one-room‖ theatre, which allows the actors and the audience to share the same space, as they did when Shakespeare‘s plays were first produced. The stage reaches out into the audience, who are seated on three sides of it. This one-room theatre creates a more traditional Shakespearean performance area, allowing the audience to draw closer to the actors and creating a more personal theatre experience.

The funding for the project came from many different sources including; private pledges, Arts Council England, and the regional development agency Advantage West Midlands, as well as a successful public fundraising campaign. The Transformation project also incorporated the creation of the temporary Courtyard Theatre to house performances in Stratford-upon-Avon during the time the Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres were closed, new offices at Chapel Lane, a nursery and refurbished rehearsal rooms at Arden Street. The project reached over a total of £100 million in cost and also drew in financial support from RSC America and its own board members.

Plans to redevelop the theatre were finalized and work commenced in 2007, with a scheduled completion date of 2010. The RSC had its own project team, led by Project Director, Peter Wilson OBE. Meanwhile, performances were transferred to the temporary Courtyard Theatre, which was a full-sized working prototype for the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, built on the site of the RSC's studio theatre, The Other Place.

The new theatre opened in November 2010, with preview events and activities, in advance of the first full Shakespeare performances from the RSC's existing repertoire from February 2011. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre was officially opened on 4 March 2011 by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, who were given a performance of the balcony scene from

Romeo and Juliet.

I. Read the following sentences write the correct word in the space provided using the definitions below. If you need more help read the sentences in the text where the word appears and think about how it is used

1.The Royal Shakespeare is on the western bank of the River Avon, with the adjacent Bancroft Gardens providing a … riverside setting.

2.Two tiers of seating were later added to the side walls of the theatre and the stage extended beyond the …

3.Balcony seats could only be accessed by means of a staircase to the side of the building, separate from the main … and bar.

4.The theatre has several notable Art Deco features, including the staircase and corridors at either side of the...

5.The Transformation project also included improvements to the Swan Theatre, the creation of an array of new … spaces

6.. The Transformation project also incorporated the creation of refurbished …rooms at Arden

Street.

7.Shakespeare Theatre was officially opened on 4 March 2011 by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, who were given a performance of the balcony … from Romeo and Juliet.

a.relating to all the people in a community b. The place where an action or event occurs

c.an event that occurs as preparation for a performance.

d.a place wth an attractive scenary

e.a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances at venues such as theatres.

f.a large, vast room or complex of rooms adjacent to the auditorium.

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g. the area of a theatre surrounding the stage opening

II. Read for a purpose

You are going to read the text about American theatre. Before you read, complete the first two columns of the chart

III. Agree or disagree, using the following expressions

To introduce your opinion use the following

I think ...

It seems to me ...

(Personally,) I believe ...

From my point of view / viewpoint...

(Personally,) I feel ... As far as I'm concerned, ...

In my view/opinion ...

As I see it, ...

As far as I can see, ...

To my knowledge,...

To disagree use the following

As a matter of fact, I don't agree.

I'm not sure, in fact.I'm not at all convinced.

I'm afraid I entirely disagree with ...

I don't think that's right.

I can't say I share your view.

To say you partly agree use the following

I agree with you up to a point/ in a sense/ in a way, but ...

I see what you mean, but ...

There's some truth in what you say. However, ...

I agree with much of what you say, but ...

To a certain extent, yes, but...

That may be true, but on the other hand ...

That's all very well, but ...

1.The Royal Shakespeare Museum reopened in November 2010

2.The Royal Shakespeare Theatre was officially opened on 4 March 2011 by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip.

3.The Royal Shakespeare Theatre opened on 23 April 1932 on the site adjacent to the original Shakespeare Memorial.

4.In its original form, the theatre had anarch stage.

5.Two tiers of seating were later added to the side walls of the theatre and the stage extended beyond the proscenium.

6.The Royal Shakespeare Company has renovated the Royal Shakespeare Theatre

7.The theatre is a ―three -room‖ theatre, which allows the actors and the audience to share the same space.

IV. DISTINGUISHING FACTS FROM OPINIONS.

A fact is a statement that you can prove to be true. An opinion is a statement that describes someone’s feelings or beliefs about a topic. Learning to decide if a statement is a fact or opinion

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will help you understand more about what you read

Read each statement and decide if it is a fact or an opinion.

1.The Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST) is a 1,040 seat thrust stage theatre owned by the dedicated to the British playwright and poetWilliam Shakespeare. It is located in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon – Shakespeare's birthplace – in the EnglishMidlands, beside the River Avon. The Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres reopened in November 2010after undergoing a major renovation known as the Transformation Project. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre opened on 23 April 1932 on the site adjacent to the original Shakespeare Memorial Theatre (opened 19 April 1879), which had been destroyed by fire on 6 March 1926, whose name it took.The architect was Elisabeth Scott, so the theatre became the first important work erected in this country from the designs of a woman architect.

Fact Opinion

a.The architect was Elisabeth Scott, so the theatre became the first important work erected in this country from the designs of a woman architect.

b.The Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres reopened in November 2010after undergoing a major renovation.

c.The Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST) is a 1,040 seat thrust stage theatre owned by the dedicated to the British playwright and poet William Shakespeare.

2. The Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres are on the western bank of the River Avon, with the adjacent Bancroft Gardens providing a scenic riverside setting. The Rooftop Restaurant and Bar overlooks both the river and the Bancroft Gardens. In its original form, the theatre had a proscenium-arch stage, and a seating capacity of about 1,400 people, on three tiers (stalls, circle and balcony). Two tiers of seating were later added to the side walls of the theatre and the stage extended beyond the proscenium, by means of an 'apron'. Balcony seats could only be accessed by means of a staircase to the side of the building, separate from the main foyer and bar.

Fact Opinion

a.In its original form, the theatre had a proscenium-arch stage, and a seating capacity of about 1,400 people, on three tiers

b. Two tiers of seating were later added to the side walls of the theatre and the stage extended beyond the proscenium, by means of an 'apron'.

c.The Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres are on the western bank of the River Avon, with the adjacent Bancroft Gardens providing a scenic riverside setting.

3.The Royal Shakespeare Company has renovated the Royal Shakespeare Theatre as part of a

£112.8m. Transformation project which included the creation of a new 1040seat, thrust stage auditorium which brings actors and audiences closer together, with the distance of the furthest seat from the stage being reduced from 27m to 15m.The Transformation project also included improvements to the Swan Theatre, the creation of an array of new public spaces, including a new Riverside Cafe and Rooftop Restaurant, a 36 metre observation tower, and improved backstage conditions for the actors and crew. The funding for the project came from many different sources including; private pledges, Arts Council England, and the regional development agency Advantage West Midlands, as well as a successful public fundraising campaign.

Fact Opinion

a.The Transformation project also included improvements to the Swan

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Theatre, the creation of an array of new public spaces.

b.The funding for the project came from many different sources c.The Royal Shakespeare Company has renovated the Royal

Shakespeare Theatre as part of a £112.8m.

4. The funding for the project came from many different sources including private pledges, Arts Council England, and the regional development agency Advantage West Midlands, as well as a successful public fundraising campaign. The Transformation project also incorporated the creation of the temporary Courtyard Theatre to house performances in Stratford-upon-Avon during the time the Royal Shakespeare and Swan Theatres were closed, new offices at Chapel Lane, a nursery and refurbished rehearsal rooms at Arden Street. The project reached over a total of £100 million in cost and also drew in financial support from RSC America and its own board members.

Plans to redevelop the theatre were finalized and work commenced in 2007, with a scheduled completion date of 2010. The RSC had its own project team, led by Project Director, Peter Wilson OBE.

Fact Opinion

a.Plans to redevelop the theatre were finalized and work commenced in 2007.

b.The Transformation project also incorporated the creation of the temporary Courtyard Theatre to house performances in Stratford- upon-Avon.

c. The funding for the project came from many different sources including; private pledges.

V. Using word maps.

When you are learning a new language you need to learn many new words. It can be difficult to remember the meanings of all the new words. One way to help you remember a new word is to make a word map.

Write the new word in the middle of the map. Then complete the rest of the map with a definition, a synonym, an antonym and an association you can make with this word.

Choose four words from the text ―American Theatre‖ that you want to learn and remember. Make a word map for each word, using the scheme.

VOCABULARY

WORD

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VI. Complete the 3 rd column. Did the article answer any of your questions from the 2nd column? Which ones? Look all the things you wrote in the 1st columns. Were any of your ideas confirmed or rejected in the article? Which ones?

VII. EXPLORE THE WEB to look for some additional information about

Swan Theatre Courtyard theatre

Shakespear Memrial theatre And their representative

VIII. Try to retell the text using the following words and expressions

This plays a key/ vital / prominent / important/ major role in… This aspect is of fundamental / great/vital importance for… We have every reason to believe that…

We can safely assume that…

There is ample/ abundant evidence that…

This problem has to do with/ relates to/ is associated with/ is connected with

It‘s common knowledge that… It‘s well known that…

TEXT I. THEATRE

Theatrical performances were not known in Russia until the second half of XVII century. First theaters in Moscow are associated with buffoons' performances. In 1659 Russian ambassador Lichachev saw his first play in Florence: most of all he liked rapid change of decorations and wooden horses that were moving like if they were alive. After his return to Russia he suggested to Tsar Aleksey Mikchailovitch (1629-1676) to build a theater in the house of Russian diplomat Matveev. In 1676 under the guidance of Matveev theatrical performances were being played in Preobrazenskoe - the summer residence of Tsar Aleksey Michailovitch. For that purpose a special mansion "Comedy Charomina" was built. German and some Russian actors worked there under the pastor I.G. Gregory' leadership. For performances at winter time, in 1673 some place in Kremlin was equipped. In seventeenth century there were some private theatres in Kiev, in Saikonospassky cloister, in Novgorod seminary and at the bishop's house in Rostov. In such theatres as a rule novices played. All dramatic works of that time in terms of it contents could be considered as spiritual performances. Among them you cold find such as "Sinner", "Christ Christmas and Resurection", "Saintly Martyr Evdokia", "The Second Lord's Advent" and others. The authors of these plays were saint Dmitry Rostovsky, monk Semen Polozky. Abbey of Baturinsky cloister Feofan had written some comedy in poetry. Princess Sofia Alekseevna was the author of the first Russian tragedy "Martyr Ecaterina". After the Aleksey Mikchailovitch death his theatre was closed.

In the time of Peter the First government, by the Greek-Slavonic Academy a school theatre was organised. Since 1701 the school theatre's performances in allegorical form about the tsar's reforms, Russian army's deeds and victories had been told.

In 1702 at the Red Square was founded a theatrical building, "The Comedy Chramina (Temple of Comedy)" called, where germane troupe of I.X. Kunst played. The theatre was supposed for general public that pieces of Molier, Kalderon and others was shown. In 1706 the theatre was closed as well but theatricals continued their life in amateur theatres.

As for constant theatre, such one was founded in Yaroslavl just in 1748, but in 1756 under the highest (tsar) order the theatre's actors were sent to Saint-Petersburg where at the scene of national theatre people managed to see wonderful comedy presented by the best actors of the troupe.

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By Moscow University in 1757 it was The University theatre opened. Since 1759 till 1761 its plays had bee acted at the Lokally Opera-House scene. For that time the students group become a professional one and was "Russian Theatre" named. In 1780 a big house on Petrivasky street was built for the first russian constant public theatre founded by Moskow prince P.V.Usov and entrepreneur M. Medoks. Here, in 1783 for the first time was the comedy by D.I. Fonvisin "Nedorosl". From the second part of eighteenth century the most famous become landowners' theatres (Sheremetievsky, Yusupovsky) in which peasants played.

In 1824 for dramatic troupes was rebuilt the house of merchant Vargin whose theatre was "Maly Theatre" (Small Theatre) called. Plays of Shiller ("Robbers"), Sheakspeer ("Gamlet"), Griboedov ("Grief through the Mind"). A new step of the theatre had begun form the pieces of A.N. Ostrovsky gave to the Russian scene a great variety of realistic national works.

From the end of 1860, contrary to the monopoly of empire theatres it was undertaken some attempts to create private ones. In 1865-83 by force of amateurs and professional artists was organised an "Artists Set". At the XIX century one of the Russian laws forbade to show theatricals in time of the Lent, on holidays and Saturdays. But under the personal decree governor Dolgoruky - that considered itself as apportioned prince and who did not obey to SaintPetersburg - the artist set was allowed to play during the Lent and other spiritual holidays. To write on theatrical poster not only full name of the play, but "scenes of the tragedy "Makbet" (for example), although whole performance were played, was the only conditions of Dolgoruky to allow performances on these days.

In 1888 "The Society of art and literature", where young K.S. Stanislavsky made his theatricals, was found.

In 1914 A. Tairov and a group of young actors organised Kamerny Theatre the main idea of which was to bring up the actor, being in posses of all theatrical styles: from tragedy to operetta. A lot of new theatres sprang up after the Great October Revolution: "Meyerhold Theatre", "3th Studio of MHT" (now it's known as "Vahtangova Theatre"), "Theatre of Revolution" (now called "Mayakovsky Theatre"), "Theatre of Young Spectator" and others.

New piece ("Lubov Yarovaya" by Trenev, "The Days of Trubiny" by Bulgacov, "Optimistical Tragedy" by Vishnevsky) played in the theirs reflected the idea of revolution, its results, its problems. Some of them ("Mandate" by Erdman, "The Bug" and "Banya"("The Bath") by Mayakovsky) were written to discover enemies of revolution. But some classical pieces - the plays of Chehov ("Wedding"), Ostrovsky ("A Profitable Place"), Gogol ("Inspector") were interpreted and given a new life.

In the time of the Great Patriotic War most of the Moscow theatres were evacuated but from their artists some military theatres and concert brigades were organised. They show such patriotically theatricals as "Russian people" by K.M. Simonov, "Invasion" by L.M.Leonov and others.

During the first peaceful years an important part of performances was occupied by plays dedicated to the heroes of the Great Patriotic War ("Young Guards" by A.A. Fadeev). Since 1920th Moscow theatres regularly show their performances abroad: in USA, France,

Polan, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia. At the same time some foreign ones have their starring in Russia: "La Comedy Francaise" and "National Public Theatre of France", "England Shakespeare Theatre" and "The Bruck's Theatre" etc.

The actors' and producers' training is available in Moscow State Institute of Theatrical Art, at the studio by Children Music Theatre, studio-school of Nemirovitch-Danchenko, in theatricals school of Schepkin and in the Schukin one.

All important events in the theatrical life of Russia are observed in reviews "Theatre" (being issued since 1937), "Theatrical Life" (since 1958), "Theatrical Spectator" (since 1991) and others.

I. Try to match up the words in column a with their meaning in the column B

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II. Complete the following abstracts in a logical way.

1. By Moscow University in 1757 it was The University theatre opened. Since 1759 till 1761 its plays had bee acted at the Lokally Opera-House scene. For that time the students group become a professional one and was "Russian Theatre" named. In 1780 a big house on Petrivasky street was built for the first russian constant public theatre founded by Moskow prince P.V.Usov and entrepreneur M. Medoks. Here, in 1783 for the first time was the comedy by D.I. Fonvisin "Nedorosl".

2.During the first peaceful years an important part of performances was occupied by plays dedicated to the heroes of the Great Patriotic War ("Young Guards" by A.A. Fadeev). Since 1920th Moscow theatres regularly show their performances abroad: in USA, France, Polan, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia. At the same time some foreign ones have their starring in Russia: "La Comedy Francaise" and "National Public Theatre of France", "England Shakespeare Theatre" and "The Bruck's Theatre" etc.

3. From the end of 1860, contrary to the monopoly of empire theatres it was undertaken some attempts to create private ones. In 1865-83 by force of amateurs and professional artist was organised an "Artists Set". At the XIX century one of the Russian laws forbade to show theatricals in time of the Lent, on holidays and Saturdays. But under the personal decree governor Dolgoruky - that considered itself as apportioned prince and who did not obey to SaintPetersburg - the artist set was allowed to play during the Lent and other spiritual holidays.

4.Theatrical performances were not known in Russia until the second half of XVII century. First theaters in Moscow are associated with buffoons' performances. In 1659 Russian ambassador Lichachev saw his first play in Florence: most of all he liked rapid change of decorations and wooden horses that were moving like if they were alive. After his return to Russia he suggested to Tsar Aleksey Mikchailovitch (1629-1676) to build a theater in the house of Russian diplomat Matveev.

5.In 1914 A. Tairov and a group of young actors organised Kamerny Theatre the main idea of which was to bring up the actor, being in posses of all theatrical styles: from tragedy to operetta. A lot of new theatres sprang up after the Great October Revolution: "Meyerhold Theatre", "3th Studio of MHT" (now it's known as "Vahtangova Theatre"), "Theatre of Revolution" (now called "Mayakovsky Theatre"), "Theatre of Young Spectator" and others.

III.Choose the correct variant of translation

1. In 1888 "The Society of art and literature", where young K.S. Stanislavsky made his theatricals, was found.

a.В 1888 г. было создано «сообщество искусства и литературы», где молодой Станиславский ставил свои спектакли.

b.«Сообщество искусства и литературы» было создано в 1888 г., там молодой Станиславский ставил свои спектакли

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c. В«Сообществе искусства и литературы», созданном в 1888 г. молодой Станиславский ставил свои спектакли.

2. The actors' and producers' training is available in Moscow State Institute of Theatrical Art, at the studio by Children Music Theatre, studio-school of Nemirovitch-Danchenko, in theatricals school of Schepkin and in the Schukin one.

a.В Московском Государственном Университете театрального искусства, в студии при детском музыкальном театре, школе – студии Немировича – Данченко, в театральных школах им. Щепкина и Щукина обучали актерскому мастерству и режиссуре. b.Актеры и режиссеры обучались вМосковском Государственном Университете театрального искусства, в студии при детском музыкальном театре, школе – студии Немировича – Данченко, в театральных школах им. ЩепкинаиЩукина.

c.Обучение актеров и режиссеров было доступно в Московском Государственном Университете театрального искусства, в студии при детском музыкальном театре, школе – студии Немировича – Данченко, в театральных школах им. Щепкина и Щукина.

3. At the XIX century one of the Russian laws forbade to show theatricals in time of theLent, on holidays and Saturdays.

a.Один из законов России запрещал вXIX веке показывать театральные представленияво время поста, по праздникам и по субботам.

b.ВXIXвеке одним из законов России запрещал показывать театральные представленияво время поста, по праздникам и по субботам.

c.Показывать театральные представленияво время поста, по праздникам и по субботам в XIXвеке запрещалось одним из Российских законов.

4.For performances at winter time, in 1673 some place in Kremlin was equipped. a.Зимой в 1673 г. представления давались в Кремле.

b.В 1673 зимние представления проходили в Кремле.

c.Для представлений в зимнее время в 1673 г. было выделено место в Кремле.

5. All dramatic works of that time in terms of it contents could be considered as spiritual performances.

a. Все драматические произведения того времени по своему содержанию моглибы считаться религиозными спектаклями.

b.Религиозными спектаклями могли бы считаться все драматическиепроизведения того времени в зависимости от содержания.

c.Посвоему содержания все драматические произведения считались религиозными

6 .First theaters in Moscow are associated with buffoons' performances. a.В первых театрах Москвы играли буффонаду

b.Буффонада была характерна только для первых театров Москвы c.Первые театры в Москве ассоциировались с буффонадой.

IV. Answer the following questions

1.When were theatrical performances known in Russia?

2.What were the first theatres in Moscow associated with?

3.What were the works of that time?

4.When was the first theatre school organized and what plays did it staged?

5.When was the first University theatyre opened?

6.Who was the founder of the first public theatre?

7.What was the fate of the theatre after the Great Patriotic War?

V. Render the text in English (see the ex. on page 174)

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TEXT II. REFORMERS OF THE STAGE

Part I

The XX century gave the world such innovators and stage reformers as Stanislavsky and Vakgtangov on the one hand and Breht and Meyerhold on the other.

Stanislavsky and Breht were both practitioners and theorists. They created the most complete drama theories. Each of them has his own working methods and their achievements brought them general acclaim. Their influence on the world theatre and their appeal don‘t lessen with time.

Stanislavski is an outstanding Soviet actor, stage director and theorist who looked for the new ways of scenic expressiveness; he strove to sum up the experience of the world stage masters. Stanislavsky‘s conceptions were greatly influenced by Shepkin who has been called the father of Russian realism, and the plays by Anton Chechov.

The Stanislavsky‘s system fought against overacting, clichés and mannerism. Before

Stanislavsky drama schools everywhere in the world had been teaching only physical elements of an actor‘s playing: ballet, fencing, speech, diction. There had been no inner acting technique.

Stanislavsky developed the technique which helped actors to build the inner world of the person portrayed on the stage. His demand for truth and simplicitydid‘t mean only external presentation of naturalness. Stanislavsky‘s ―art of adaptation‖ concerned everything from the actor‘s make – up to the inner identification with the character.He believed that theatre became art only through professionalism.

The Stanislavsky‘s System played an outstanding role in the development of the theatre.

All over the world actors, directors, and teachers of acting follow his method. However we should remember that the method is not dogmatic. The great innovator did not look upon his method as an end in itself. ―Create your own method‖, he used to say to his actors. ―Don‘t depend on mine, but keep breaking traditions‖.

Stanislavski's 'system' is a systematic approach to training actors. Areas of study include concentration, voice, physical skills, emotion memory, observation, and dramatic analysis. Stanislavski's goal was to find a universally applicable approach that could be of service to all actors. Yet he said of his system:

Many actors routinely identify his system with Lee Strasberg's Method approach, an adaptation of Stanislavski's approach. Strasberg's adaptation relied exclusively on psychological techniques and contrasted sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in'. Stella Adler, who had studied with Stanislavski, offered an American adaptation of the technique much more in keeping with that of Stanislavski focusing on both inner and outer sources of experience in building a character.

Emotion memory

Stanislavski's 'system' focused on the development of artistic truth onstage by teaching actors to "experience the part" during performance. Stanislavski hoped that the 'system' could be applied to all forms of drama, including melodrama, vaudeville, and opera. He organised a series of theatre studios in which young actors were trained in his 'system.' At the First Studio, actors were instructed to use their own memories in order to express emotion.

Stanislavski soon observed that some of the actors using or abusing this technique were given to hysteria. He began to search for more reliable means to access emotion, eventually emphasizing the actor's use of imagination and belief in the given circumstances of the text rather than her/his private and often painful memories.

The Method of Physical Actions

In the beginning, Stanislavski proposed that actors study and experience subjective emotions and feelings and manifest them to audiences by physical and vocal means. While in its very earliest

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stages his 'system' focused on creating truthful emotions and embodying them, he later worked on the Method of Physical Actions. This was developed at the Opera Dramatic Studio from the early 1930s. Its focus was on physical actions as a means to access truthful emotion, and involved improvisation. The focus remained on reaching the subconscious through the conscious

Vakhtangov was Stanislavsky‘s greatest pupil, who succeeded by the early 1920s in reconciling the naturalistic acting techniques of his master with the bold experiments of Vsevolod Y. Meyerhold. He was an inspired artist who left his mark on all his creations.

It is interesting to note that during the short years of Stanislavsky‘s creative effort he was much interested in the work of V. Meyerhold, the famous innovator whose productions arosed heated and contradictory discussions.

Vakhtangov was born to an Armenian father and a Russian mother Vladikavkaz, Northern Ossetia. He was educated at Moscow State University for a short time and then joined the Moscow Art Theatre in 1911 and rose in the ranks, so that by 1920 he was in charge of his own theatre studio.He identifies a commonality with his own 'demonstrating' element in acting, but argues that Vakhtangov's method lacks the social insight and pedagogical function of Brecht's own Gestic form: "when Vakhtangov's actor says 'I'm not laughing, I'm demonstrating laughter one still doesn't learn anything from his demonstration".The later part of his career took place at a high point of Russian theatre, amidst the Bolshevik Revolution and Civil War.

His departure from naturalism in the direction of greater theatricality gave rise to some of the most original productions of the Russian post-Revolutionary theatre. In 1920 he took charge of the Third Workshop, which was a subsidiary studio of the Moscow Art Theatre, and gradually led that company toward a ―fantastic realism.‖ He made use of masks, music, dance, and boldly abstract costume and scenery design in pursuit of a theatre that would offer the popular audience dreams, fantasy, and satire rather than a mirror of itself.

As director, simultaneously, of the Habima Theatre, Vakhtangov found in Jewish folklore a further field for the exercise of whimsy and grotesquerie. The Dybbuk, S. Ansky's tale of demoniac possession, was a particular success (1922). While far less extreme than Meyerhold, Vakhtangov did not hesitate to realize bold new interpretations. In his brilliant production of Carlo Gozzi's Chinese fairy tale Turandot, he introduced commedia dell'arte techniques and had actors dress and make up on the stage and stagehands change sets in view of the audience. The production of Turandot, which was begun when Vakhtangov was fatally ill, was nevertheless infused with the gaiety, charm, and optimistic humanity that were characteristic of his work. The Third Workshop was renamed the Vakhtangov Theatre.Meyerhold began acting in 1896 as a student of the Moscow Philharmonic Dramatic School under the guidance of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, co-founder of the Moscow Art Theatre. At the MAT, Meyerhold played 18 roles, such as Vasiliy Shuiskiy in Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich and Ivan the Terrible in The Death of Ivan the Terrible (both by Aleksey Tolstoy), and Treplev in Chekhov'sThe Seagull.

After leaving the MAT in 1902, Meyerhold participated in a number of theatrical projects, as both a director and actor. Each project was an arena for experiment and creation of new staging methods. Meyerhold was one of the most fervent advocates of Symbolism in theatre, especially when he worked as the chief producer of the Vera Komissarzhevskaya theatre in 1906-1907. He was invited back to the MAT around this time to pursue his experimental ideas.

Meyerhold continued theatrical innovation during the decade 1907-1917, while working with the imperial theatres in St. Petersburg, introducing classical plays in an innovative manner, and staging works of controversial contemporary authors like Fyodor Sologub, Zinaida Gippius, and Alexander Blok. In these plays, Meyerhold tried to return acting to the traditions of Commedia dell'arte, rethinking them for the contemporary theatrical reality. His theoretical concepts of the "conditional theatre" were elaborated in his book On Theatre in 1913.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 made Meyerhold one of the most enthusiastic activists of the new Soviet Theatre. He joined the Bolshevik Party in 1918 and became an official of the Theatre Division (TEO) of the Commissariat of Education and Enlightenment, forming an alliance with Olga Kameneva, the head of the Division in 1918-1919. Together, they tried to radicalize

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