акустика / gan_ws_acoustical_imaging_techniques_and_applications_for_en
.pdfACOUSTICAL IMAGING
ACOUSTICAL IMAGING
TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS FOR ENGINEERS
Woon Siong Gan
Acoustical Technologies Singapore Pte Ltd
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
This edition first published 2012C 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gan, Woon Siong.
Acoustical imaging : techniques and applications for engineers / Woon Siong Gan. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-66160-4 (hardback)
1.Acoustic imaging. 2. Sound-waves–Scattering. I. Title.
TA1770.G36 2012 620.2 8–dc23
2011052023
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-470-66160-4
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India
Contents
About the Author |
xv |
||
Foreword |
|
xvii |
|
1 |
Introduction |
1 |
|
|
References |
4 |
|
2 |
Physics of Acoustics and Acoustical Imaging |
5 |
|
2.1 |
Introduction |
5 |
|
2.2 |
Sound Propagation in Solids |
5 |
|
|
2.2.1 |
Derivation of Linear Wave Equation of Motion and |
|
|
|
its Solutions |
5 |
2.2.2Symmetries in Linear Acoustic Wave Equations and the
|
|
New Stress Field Equation |
6 |
2.3 |
Use of Gauge Potential Theory to Solve Acoustic Wave Equations |
7 |
|
2.4 |
Propagation of Finite Wave Amplitude Sound Wave in Solids |
8 |
|
|
2.4.1 |
Higher-Order Elasticity Theory |
9 |
|
2.4.2 |
Nonlinear Effects |
9 |
|
2.4.3 |
Derivation of the Nonlinear Acoustic Equation of Motion |
9 |
|
2.4.4 |
Solutions of the Higher-Order Acoustics Equations of Motion |
10 |
2.5 |
Nonlinear Effects Due to Energy Absorption |
11 |
|
|
2.5.1 |
Energy Absorption Due to Thermal Conductivity |
11 |
|
2.5.2 |
Energy Absorption Due to Dislocation |
11 |
2.6 |
Gauge Theory Formulation of Sound Propagation in Solids |
12 |
2.6.1Introduction of a Covariant Derivative in the Infinitesimal
Amplitude Sound Wave Equation |
13 |
2.6.2Introduction of Covariant Derivative to the Large Amplitude
|
|
Sound Wave Equation |
13 |
|
References |
14 |
|
3 |
Signal Processing |
15 |
|
3.1 |
Mathematical Tools in Signal Processing and Image Processing |
15 |
|
|
3.1.1 |
Matrix Theory |
15 |
3.1.2 |
Some Properties of Matrices |
16 |
vi |
|
|
Contents |
|
3.1.3 |
Fourier Transformation |
17 |
|
3.1.4 |
The Z-Transform |
22 |
3.2 |
Image Enhancement |
23 |
|
|
3.2.1 |
Spatial Low-Pass, High-Pass and Band-Pass Filtering |
23 |
|
3.2.2 |
Magnification and Interpolation (Zooming) |
24 |
|
3.2.3 |
Replication |
24 |
|
3.2.4 |
Linear Interpolation |
24 |
|
3.2.5 |
Transform Operation |
24 |
3.3 |
Image Sampling and Quantization |
24 |
|
|
3.3.1 |
Sampling versus Replication |
26 |
|
3.3.2 |
Reconstruction of the Image from its Samples |
26 |
|
3.3.3 |
Nyquist Rate |
27 |
|
3.3.4 |
Sampling Theorem |
27 |
3.3.5Examples of Application of Two-Dimensional
|
|
Sampling Theory |
27 |
|
3.3.6 |
Sampling Theorem for Radom Fields |
28 |
|
3.3.7 |
Practical Limitation in Sampling and Reconstruction |
28 |
|
3.3.8 |
Image Quantization |
28 |
3.4 |
Stochastic Modelling of Images |
28 |
|
|
3.4.1 |
Autoregressive Models |
29 |
|
3.4.2 |
Properties of AR Models |
30 |
|
3.4.3 |
Moving Average Model |
30 |
3.5 |
Beamforming |
30 |
|
|
3.5.1 |
Principles of Beamforming |
30 |
|
3.5.2 |
Sonar Beamforming Requirements |
32 |
3.6 |
Finite-Element Method |
32 |
|
|
3.6.1 |
Introduction |
32 |
|
3.6.2 |
Applications |
33 |
3.7 |
Boundary Element Method |
34 |
|
|
3.7.1 |
Comparison to Other Methods |
35 |
|
References |
36 |
|
4 |
Common Methodologies of Acoustical Imaging |
37 |
|
4.1 |
Introduction |
37 |
|
4.2 |
Tomography |
37 |
|
|
4.2.1 |
The Born Approximation |
42 |
|
4.2.2 |
The Rytov Approximation |
42 |
|
4.2.3 |
The Fourier Diffraction Theorem |
43 |
|
4.2.4 |
Reconstruction and Backpropagation Algorithm |
44 |
4.3 |
Holography |
50 |
|
|
4.3.1 |
Liquid Surface Method |
50 |
4.4 |
Pulse–Echo and Transmission Modes |
53 |
|
|
4.4.1 |
C-Scan Method |
53 |
|
4.4.2 |
B-Scan Method |
55 |
4.5 |
Acoustic Microscopy |
59 |
|
|
References |
60 |
Contents |
|
vii |
|
5 |
Time-Reversal Acoustics and Superresolution |
63 |
|
5.1 |
Introduction |
63 |
|
5.2 |
Theory of Time-Reversal Acoustics |
63 |
|
|
5.2.1 |
Time-Reversal Acoustics and Superresolution |
68 |
5.3 |
Application of TR to Medical Ultrasound Imaging |
69 |
5.4Application of Time-Reversal Acoustics to Ultrasonic
Nondestructive Testing |
70 |
|
5.4.1 |
Theory of Time-Reversal Acoustics for Liquid–Solid Interface |
72 |
5.4.2Experimental Implementation of the TRM for Nondestructive
|
|
Testing Works |
73 |
|
5.4.3 |
Incoherent Summation |
75 |
|
5.4.4 |
Time Record of Signals Coming from a Speckle Noise Zone |
76 |
|
5.4.5 |
The Iterative Technique |
77 |
|
5.4.6 |
Iterative Process for a Zone Containing a Hard-Alpha |
77 |
|
5.4.7 |
Iterative Process as a Pure Speckle Noise Zone |
77 |
5.5 |
Application of TRA to Landmine or Buried Object Detection |
80 |
|
|
5.5.1 |
Introduction |
80 |
|
5.5.2 |
Theory |
81 |
|
5.5.3 |
Experimental Procedure |
82 |
|
5.5.4 |
Experimental Setup |
83 |
|
5.5.5 |
Wiener Filter |
84 |
|
5.5.6 |
Experimental Results |
84 |
5.6 |
Application of Time-Reversal Acoustics to Underwater Acoustics |
86 |
|
|
References |
86 |
|
6 |
Nonlinear Acoustical Imaging |
89 |
|
6.1 |
Application of Chaos Theory to Acoustical Imaging |
89 |
|
|
6.1.1 |
Nonlinear Problem Encountered in Diffraction Tomography |
89 |
|
6.1.2 |
Definition and History of Chaos |
89 |
|
6.1.3 |
Definition of Fractal |
90 |
|
6.1.4 |
The Link between Chaos and Fractals |
91 |
|
6.1.5 |
The Fractal Nature of Breast Cancer |
92 |
|
6.1.6 |
Types of Fractals |
93 |
|
6.1.7 |
Fractal Approximation |
96 |
|
6.1.8 |
Diffusion Limited Aggregation |
96 |
|
6.1.9 |
Growth Site Probability Distribution |
96 |
|
6.1.10 |
Approximating the Scattered Field Using GSPD |
98 |
|
6.1.11 |
Discrete Helmholtz Wave Equation |
99 |
|
6.1.12 |
Kaczmarz Algorithm |
100 |
|
6.1.13 |
Hounsfield Method |
101 |
|
6.1.14 |
Applying GSPD into Kaczmarz Algorithm |
102 |
|
6.1.15 |
Fractal Algorithm Using Frequency Domain Interpolation |
103 |
6.1.16Derivation of Fractal Algorithm’s Final Equation Using
|
Frequency Domain Interpolation |
103 |
6.1.17 |
Simulation Results |
104 |
6.1.18 |
Comparison between Born and Fractal Approximations |
106 |
viii |
|
|
Contents |
6.2 |
Nonclassical Nonlinear Acoustical Imaging |
107 |
|
|
6.2.1 |
Introduction |
107 |
|
6.2.2 |
Mechanisms of Harmonic Generation via CAN |
108 |
|
6.2.3 |
Nonlinear Resonance Modes |
111 |
|
6.2.4 |
Experimental Studies on Nonclassical CAN Spectra |
112 |
6.2.5CAN Application for Nonlinear Acoustical Imaging
|
|
and NDE |
113 |
|
6.2.6 |
Conclusion |
115 |
6.3 |
Modulation Method of Nonlinear Acoustical Imaging |
116 |
|
|
6.3.1 |
Introduction |
116 |
|
6.3.2 |
Principles of Modulation Acoustic Method |
117 |
|
6.3.3 |
The Modulation Mode Method of Crack Location |
117 |
|
6.3.4 |
Experimental Procedure of the Modulation Method for NDT |
118 |
|
6.3.5 |
Experimental Procedures for the Modulation Mode System |
118 |
|
6.3.6 |
Conclusions |
121 |
6.4 |
Harmonic Imaging |
121 |
|
|
References |
122 |
|
7 |
High-Frequencies Acoustical Imaging |
125 |
|
7.1 |
Introduction |
125 |
|
7.2 |
Transducers |
125 |
|
7.3 |
Electronic Circuitry |
126 |
|
7.4 |
Software |
|
127 |
7.5Applications of High-Frequencies In Vivo Ultrasound
|
Imaging System |
127 |
|
7.6 |
System of 150 MHz Ultrasound Imaging of the Skin and the Eye |
128 |
|
7.7 |
Signal Processing for the 150 MHz System |
129 |
|
7.8 |
Electronic Circuits of Acoustical Microscope |
135 |
|
|
7.8.1 |
Gated Signal and Its Use in Acoustical Microscope |
135 |
|
7.8.2 |
Quasi-Monochromatic Systems |
137 |
|
7.8.3 |
Very Short Pulse Technique |
138 |
|
References |
138 |
|
8 |
Statistical Treatment of Acoustical Imaging |
141 |
|
8.1 |
Introduction |
141 |
|
8.2 |
Scattering by Inhomogeneities |
142 |
|
8.3 |
Study of the Statistical Properties of the Wavefield |
143 |
|
|
8.3.1 |
Fresnal Approximation or Near-Field Approximation |
146 |
|
8.3.2 |
Farfield Imaging Condition (Fraunhofer Approximation) |
147 |
|
8.3.3 |
Correlation of Fluctuations |
152 |
|
8.3.4 |
Quasi-static Condition |
156 |
|
8.3.5 |
The Time Autocorrelation of the Amplitude Fluctuations |
157 |
|
8.3.6 |
Experimental Verification |
160 |
8.3.7Application of Fluctuation Theory to the Diffraction Image
|
of a Focusing System |
162 |
8.3.8 |
Conclusion |
163 |
Contents |
|
ix |
|
8.4 |
Continuum Medium Approach of Statistical Treatment |
163 |
|
|
8.4.1 |
Introduction |
163 |
|
8.4.2 |
Parabolic Equation Theory |
163 |
|
8.4.3 |
Assumption for the Refractive Index Fluctuation |
164 |
|
8.4.4 |
Equation for the Average Field and General Solution |
165 |
|
References |
168 |
|
9 |
Nondestructive Testing |
169 |
|
9.1 |
Defects Characterization |
169 |
|
9.2 |
Automated Ultrasonic Testing |
171 |
|
|
9.2.1 |
Introduction |
171 |
|
9.2.2 |
Testing Procedure |
172 |
|
9.2.3 |
Example of an AUT System |
173 |
9.2.4Signal Processing and Automatic Defects and Features
|
|
Clarification in AUT |
174 |
9.3 |
Guided Waves Used in Acoustical Imaging for NDT |
176 |
|
9.4 |
Ultrasonic Technologies for Stress Measurement and Material Studies |
178 |
|
|
9.4.1 |
Introduction |
178 |
|
9.4.2 |
Internal Stress Measurements |
180 |
|
9.4.3 |
V(z) Curve Technique in the Characterization of Kissing Bond |
183 |
9.5 |
Dry Contact or Noncontact Transducers |
185 |
|
|
9.5.1 |
Defect Depth, Sizing and Characterization |
185 |
|
9.5.2 |
Pitch/Catch Swept Method |
185 |
|
9.5.3 |
Pitch/Catch Impulse Method |
185 |
|
9.5.4 |
MIA Test Method |
185 |
9.6 |
Phased Array Transducers |
186 |
|
|
9.6.1 |
Introduction |
186 |
|
9.6.2 |
Meaning of Phased Array |
187 |
|
9.6.3 |
Principle of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology |
188 |
|
9.6.4 |
Focal Laws |
191 |
|
9.6.5 |
Basic Scanning and Imaging |
191 |
9.6.6Advantages of Phased Array Testing as Compared with
|
|
Conventional UT |
192 |
|
References |
193 |
|
10 |
Medical Ultrasound Imaging |
195 |
|
10.1 |
Introduction |
195 |
|
10.2 |
Physical Principles of Sound Propagation |
196 |
|
|
10.2.1 |
Propagation of Sound Wave in Solids |
196 |
|
10.2.2 |
Contrast |
197 |
10.3 |
Imaging Modes |
198 |
|
|
10.3.1 |
B-Scan |
198 |
|
10.3.2 |
C-Scan |
205 |
10.4 |
B-scan Instrumentation |
207 |
|
|
10.4.1 |
Manual Systems |
207 |
|
10.4.2 |
Real-Time System |
210 |
x |
|
|
Contents |
|
10.4.3 |
Mechanical Scan |
210 |
|
10.4.4 |
Electronic Scan |
211 |
10.5 |
C-scan Instrumentation |
217 |
|
|
10.5.1 |
Sokolov Tube |
217 |
|
10.5.2 |
Ultrasonic Holography |
218 |
10.6 |
Tissue Harmonic Imaging |
220 |
|
|
10.6.1 |
Introduction |
220 |
|
10.6.2 |
Principles of Tissue Harmonic Imaging |
221 |
|
10.6.3 |
Image Formation in Tissue Harmonics |
224 |
|
10.6.4 |
Tissue Harmonic Image Characteristics |
226 |
|
10.6.5 |
Some Examples of Commercial Systems |
228 |
10.7 |
Elasticity Imaging |
228 |
|
|
10.7.1 |
Introduction |
228 |
|
10.7.2 |
Comparison of Human Palpation and Elasticity Imaging |
229 |
|
10.7.3 |
Choice of Force Stimulus and Imaging Modality |
231 |
|
10.7.4 |
Physics of Elasticity Imaging |
233 |
|
10.7.5 |
Image Formation Algorithm |
236 |
|
10.7.6 |
Some Examples of Commercial Systems |
238 |
10.8 |
Colour Doppler Imaging |
244 |
|
|
10.8.1 |
Doppler Ultrasound |
244 |
|
10.8.2 |
Pulsed (Gated) and Spectral Doppler |
245 |
|
10.8.3 |
Quantitative Doppler Techniques |
246 |
|
10.8.4 |
Velocity Measurements |
247 |
|
10.8.5 |
Spectral Doppler Waveform Measurements |
247 |
|
10.8.6 |
Volume Blood Flow Measurements |
248 |
|
10.8.7 |
Colour Doppler |
248 |
|
10.8.8 |
Newer Techniques |
250 |
10.9 |
Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound |
250 |
|
|
10.9.1 |
Introduction |
250 |
|
10.9.2 |
Bubble Echocardiogram |
251 |
|
10.9.3 |
Microbubble Contrast Agents |
251 |
|
10.9.4 |
How it Works |
253 |
|
10.9.5 |
Applications |
253 |
10.10 3D Ultrasound Medical Imaging |
254 |
||
|
10.10.1 |
Introduction |
254 |
|
10.10.2 |
Elective 3D Ultrasound |
255 |
|
10.10.3 |
Risk Reduction of 3D Ultrasounds |
257 |
|
10.10.4 |
Future Developments |
257 |
|
10.10.5 |
Regional Anaesthesia |
258 |
10.11 |
Development Trends |
258 |
|
|
References |
|
259 |
11 |
Underwater Acoustical Imaging |
263 |
|
11.1 |
Introduction |
263 |
|
11.2 Principles of Underwater Acoustical Imaging Systems |
264 |
||
|
11.2.1 |
Spreading Loss |
264 |
11.2.2 |
Attenuation Loss |
264 |
Contents |
|
xi |
|
|
11.2.3 |
Propagation Theory |
265 |
|
11.2.4 |
Reflection and Scattering from the Sea Surface |
266 |
|
11.2.5 |
Reflection and Scattering from the Sea Bottom |
267 |
|
11.2.6 |
Sea Bottom – Reflection Loss |
267 |
|
11.2.7 |
Sound Channel |
269 |
11.3 |
Principles of Some Underwater Acoustical Imaging Systems |
270 |
|
11.4 |
Characteristics of Underwater Acoustical Imaging Systems |
273 |
|
11.5 |
Imaging Modalities |
275 |
|
|
11.5.1 |
Sonar Acoustical Imaging |
275 |
|
11.5.2 |
Orthoscopic Acoustical Imaging |
277 |
11.6 |
A Few Representative Underwater Acoustical Imaging System |
278 |
|
|
11.6.1 |
Focused Acoustical Imaging System |
278 |
11.6.2Electronic Beam-Focused Underwater Acoustical
|
|
Imaging System |
279 |
|
11.6.3 |
Holographic Acoustical Imaging |
283 |
11.7 |
Application of Robotics to Underwater Acoustical Imaging |
287 |
|
|
References |
|
287 |
12 |
Geophysical Exploration |
289 |
|
12.1 |
Introduction |
289 |
|
12.2 |
Applications of Acoustical Holography to Seismic Imaging |
290 |
|
12.3 |
Examples of Field Experiments |
291 |
|
|
12.3.1 |
One-Dimensional Holographic Arrays |
291 |
|
12.3.2 |
Two-Dimensional Holographic Arrays |
292 |
12.4 |
Laboratory Modelling |
297 |
|
12.5 |
Techniques of Image Processing and Enhancement |
297 |
|
|
12.5.1 |
Weak Signal Enhancement |
298 |
|
12.5.2 |
Phase Contrast Enhancement Technique |
298 |
12.6 |
Computer Reconstruction |
298 |
|
|
12.6.1 |
Removal of Conjugate Images |
299 |
|
12.6.2 |
Fourier Transform Hologram |
299 |
|
12.6.3 |
Examples of Computer Reconstruction |
300 |
|
12.6.4 |
Backward Wave Propagation or Frequency Domain Migration |
302 |
|
12.6.5 |
Correlation Holography |
302 |
12.7 |
Other Applications of Seismic Holography |
303 |
|
|
12.7.1 |
Monitoring Burning Fronts in Oil-Shale Retorts |
303 |
12.8 |
Signal Processing in Seismic Holography |
303 |
|
|
12.8.1 |
Velocity Filtering |
303 |
|
12.8.2 |
Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform Techniques |
304 |
|
12.8.3 |
Tau-p Transform (Slant Stack) |
305 |
|
12.8.4 |
The Inverse Tau-p Transform |
306 |
|
12.8.5 |
Examples of k-ω and Tau-p Transforms |
308 |
12.9 |
Application of Diffraction Tomography to Seismic Imaging |
310 |
|
|
12.9.1 |
Reconstruction Algorithms |
317 |
|
12.9.2 |
Computer Simulations for the VSP Case |
321 |
12.10 |
Conclusions |
322 |
|
|
References |
|
323 |